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      {720} Chapter 6. A New Paradigm: Biological Exuberance

      1
Boswell, J. (1980) Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, pp. 48-49 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); Carse, J. P. (1986) Finite and Infinite Games, pp. 75, 159 (New York: Ballantine Books).

      2
Homosexuality and transgender of various types have also been reported from numerous indigenous cultures of South America, Asia, Africa, the Pacific islands, and Australia, and many of these cultures deserve further investigation in terms of how they perceive systems of gender and sexuality in animals. Two potentially rich sources of knowledge about animal homosexuality/transgender are the many aboriginal cultures of Africa and South America. The Mongandu people of Congo (Zaire), for example, have long known of the sexual activity (genito-genital rubbing) between female Bonobos, which they call hoka-hoka. Among the Hausa of Nigeria, transgendered men known as 'yan daudu (who are effeminate, usually married to women, and also sometimes have homosexual relations) are culturally linked to Cattle Egrets, a species in which heterosexually paired males do sometimes copulate with other males (Wrangham, R., and D. Peterson [1996] Demonic Males: Apes and the Origins of Human Violence, p. 209 [New York: Houghton Mifflin]; Gaudio, R. P. [1997] "Not Talking Straight in Hausa," p. 420-22, in A. Livia and K. Hall, eds., Queerly Phrased: Language, Gender, and Sexuality, pp. 416-29 [New York: Oxford University Press]). In South America, the U'wa people of Columbia have a myth involving copulation between a male fox and a male opossum, as well as various forms of gender mixing such as pregnancy in the male fox and transformation into a woman by the male opossum (Osborn, A. [1990] "Eat and Be Eaten: Animals in U'wa [Tunebo] Oral Tradition," pp. 152-53, in R. Wills, ed., Signifying Animals: Human Meaning in the Natural World, pp. 140-58 [London: Unwin Hyman]). The creation myth cycle of the Mundurucu people of the Amazon includes images of birds as symbols of anal birth and a male homosexual reproductive capacity, and the male tapir as a creature with symbolically female sexual organs, undergoing anal penetration and being sexually attracted to a man disguised as a woman (Nadelson, L. [1981] "Pigs, Women, and the Men's House in Amazonia: An Analysis of Six Mundurucu Myths," pp. 250, 254, 260-61, 270, in S. B. Ortner and H. Whitehead, eds., Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality, pp. 240-72 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press]). And among the Waiwai and other cultures, the scent gland on the backs of both male and female peccaries is considered to have androgynous sexual functions (Morton, J. [1984] "The Domestication of the Savage Pig: The Role of Peccaries in Tropical South and Central America and Their Relevance for the Understanding of Pig Domestication in Melanesia," pp. 43-44, 63, Canberra Anthropology 7:20-70). Undoubtedly many other similar examples remain to be discovered and studied, even within the culture areas surveyed here (New Guinea, Siberia/Arctic, and indigenous North America), since this topic has yet to be systematically investigated in the anthropological literature.

      3
Of course these four themes are not discrete or mutually exclusive, since they often overlap or interconnect in a particular culture, nor are they uniform either between or within cultures. They are used here simply as a way of organizing and discussing a wide range of beliefs and practices, thereby highlighting a number of their salient features. Throughout this section the "ethnographic present tense" is used, i.e., indigenous beliefs and practices are described as ongoing, contemporary occurrences even though some have been (or are being) actively suppressed and/or eradicated by colonizer and majority cultures and their legacy of homophobic attitudes (particularly in North America and Siberia). In spite of severe declines and disappearances in the face of nearly insurmountable obstacles, however, many of these traditions continue in altered form or are undergoing wholesale cultural revival; they should be considered neither "dead" nor "lost."

      4
For more information on Native American two-spirit, see, for example, Callender, C., and L. M. Kochems (1983) "The North American Berdache," Current Anthropology 24:443-70; Williams, W. L. (1986) The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture (Boston: Beacon Press); Allen, P. G. (1986) "Hwame, Koshkalaka, and the Rest: Lesbians in American Indian Cultures," in The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions, pp. 245-61 (Boston: Beacon Press); Gay American Indians (GAI) and W. Roscoe, coordinating ed., (1988) Living the Spirit: A Gay American Indian Anthology (New York: St. Martin's Press); Jacobs, S.-E., W. Thomas, and S. Lang, eds., (1997) Two-Spirit People: Native American Gender Identity, Sexuality, and Spirituality (Urbana: University of Illinois Press); Roscoe, W. (1998) Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America (New York: St. Martin's Press).

      5
Whitman, W. (1937) The Oto, pp. 22, 29, 30, 50 (New York: Columbia University Press); Callender and Kochems, "The North American Berdache," p. 452.

      6
Cushing, F. H. (1896) "Outlines of Zuni Creation Myths," pp. 401-2, Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 13:321-447; Parsons, E. C. (1916) "The Zuni La'mana," p. 524, American Anthropologist 18:521-28.

      7
Boas, F. (1898) "The Mythology of the Bella Coola Indians," Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History 2(2):38-40 (reprinted in GAI and Roscoe, Living the Spirit, pp. 81-84); McIlwraith, T. F. (1948) The Bella Coola Indians (Toronto: University of Toronto Press); Gifford, E. W. (1931) "The Kamia of Imperial Valley," pp. 79-80, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 97:1-94. The names of two other birds encountered by the Kamia two-spirit are also mentioned in this story (tokwil and kusaul), but Gifford does not identify which species these are.
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      8
Haile, B., I. W. Goossen, and K. W. Luckert (1978) Love-Magic and Butterfly People: The Slim Curly Version of the Ajilee and Mothway Myths, pp. 82-90, 161. American Tribal Religions, vol. 2 (Flagstaff: Museum of Northern Arizona Press); Luckert, K. W. (1975) The Navajo Hunter Tradition, pp. 176-77 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press); Levy, J. E., R. Neutra, and D. Parker (1987) Hand Trembling, Frenzy Witchcraft, and Moth Madness: A Study of Navajo Seizure Disorders, p. 46 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press).

      9
Wissler, C. (1916) "Societies and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala Division of the Teton-Dakota," pp. 92-94, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 11:1-99; Howard, J. H. (1965) "The Ponca Tribe," pp. 142-43, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 195:572-97; Powers, W. (1977) Oglala Religion, pp. 58-59 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press); Thayer, J. S. (1980) "The Berdache of the Northern Plains: A Socioreligious Perspective," p. 289, Journal of Anthropological Research 36:287-93; Williams, Spirit and the Flesh, pp. 28-29; Allen, "Hwame, Koshkalaka, and the Rest"; GAI and Roscoe, Living the Spirit, pp. 87-89; Fletcher, A. C., and F. La Flesche (1911) "The Omaha Tribe," p. 133, Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 27:16-672.

      10
Kenny, M. (1975-76) "Tinselled Bucks: A Historical Study in Indian Homosexuality," Gay Sunshine 26-27: 15-17 (reprinted in GAI and Roscoe, Living the Spirit, pp. 15-31); Grinnell, G. B. (1923) The Cheyenne Indians: Their History and Ways of Life, vol. 2, pp. 79-86 (New Haven: Yale University Press); Moore, J. H. (1986) "The Ornithology of Cheyenne Religionists," pp. 181-82, Plains Anthropologist 31:177-92; Tafoya, T. (1997) "M. Dragonfly: Two-Spirit and the Tafoya Principle of Uncertainty," p. 194, in Jacobs et al., Two-Spirit People, pp. 192-200.

      11
Kroeber, A. (1902-7) "The Arapaho," pp. 19-20, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 18:1-229; Bowers, A. W. (1992) Hidatsa Social and Ceremonial Organization, pp. 325, 427 (reprint of the Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 194, 1965) (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press).

      12
Pilling mentions the "wolf power" attributed to the well-known cross-dressing Tolowa shaman, also known as Doctor Medicine (Pilling, A. R. [1997] "Cross-Dressing and Shamanism among Selected Western North American Tribes," p. 84, in Jacobs et al., Two-Spirit People, pp. 69-99). Turner reports the well-known Snoqualmie shaman who, though biologically male, was "like a woman" and had Grizzly Bear and Rainbow powers (Turner, H. [1976] "Ethnozoology of the Snoqualmie", p. 84 [unpublished manuscript, available in the Special Collections Division, University of Washington Library, Seattle, Wash.]). Another possible association of Bears with sexual and gender variance has been reported (and widely cited) for the Kaska Indians: Honigmann mentions that cross-dressing women who were raised as boys, perform male tasks, and may have homosexual relationships with other women wear an amulet made of the dried ovaries of a Bear, tied to their inner belt and worn for life, to prevent conception (Honigmann, J. J. [1954] The Kaska Indians: An Ethnographic Reconstruction, p. 130, Yale University Publications in Anthropology no. 51 [New Haven: Yale University Press]). However, Goulet has challenged and reinterpreted this example, specifically with regard to the claims of cross-dressing, homosexual involvements, and the uniqueness of the Bear amulet to these supposedly gender-mixing females (Goulet, J.-G. A. [1997] "The Northern Athapaskan 'Berdache' Reconsidered: On Reading More Than There Is in the Ethnographic Record," in Jacobs et al., Two-Spirit People, pp. 45-68).

      13
Miller, J. (1982) "People, Berdaches, and Left-Handed Bears: Human Variation in Native America," Journal of Anthropological Research 38:274-87.

      14
Among the Hopi people, a parallel view exists regarding hawks and eagles: these creatures are all thought of as mothers, and individual raptors are sometimes even given names such as Female Bear for this reason (Tyler, H. A. [1979] Pueblo Birds and Myths, p. 54 [Norman: University of Oklahoma Press]).

      15
For indigenous views on bears and menstruation, as well as further information on the Bear Mother figure, see Rockwell, D. (1991) Giving Voice to Bear: North American Indian Rituals, Myths, and Images of the Bear, pp. 14-17, 123-25, 133 (Niwot, Colo.: Roberts Rinehart Publishers); Buckley, T., and A. Gottlieb (1988) Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation, p. 22 (Berkeley: University of California Press); Shepard, P., and B. Sanders (1985) The Sacred Paw: The Bear in Nature, Myth, and Literature, pp. 55-59 (New York: Viking); Hallowell,A. I. (1926) "Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere," American Anthropologist 28:1-175; Rennicke, J. (1987) Bears of Alaska in Life and Legend (Boulder, Colo.: Roberts Rinehart).

      16
Miller, "People, Berdaches, and Left-Handed Bears," pp. 277-78; Drucker, P. (1951) The Northern and Central Nootkan Tribes, p. 130, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin no. 144 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution); Clutesi, G. (1967) "Ko-ishin-mit Invites Chims-meet to Dinner," in Son of Raven, Son of Deer: Fables of the Tse-shaht People, pp. 62-69 (Sidney, B.C.: Gray's Publishing); Sapir, E. (1915) Abnormal Types of Speech in Nootka, Geological Survey, Memoir 62, Anthropological Series no. 5 (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau).

      17
Teit, J. A. (1917) "Okanagon Tales," Memoirs of the American Folk-Lore Society 11:75-76 (reprinted in GAI and Roscoe, Living the Spirit, pp. 89-91); Mandelbaum, M. (1938) "The Individual Life Cycle," p. 119, in L. Spier, ed., The Sinkaietk or Southern Okanagon of Washington, pp. 101-29, General Series in Anthropology no. 6 (Menasha, Wis.: George Banta); Brooks, C., and M. Mandelbaum (1938) "Coyote Tricks Cougar into Providing Food," in Spier, The Sinkaietk, pp. 232-33, 257; Kroeber, "The Arapaho," p. 19; Kenny, "Tinselled Bucks," p. 22; Jones, W. (1907) "The Turtle Brings Ruin Upon Himself," in Fox Texts, pp. 314-31, Publications of the American Ethnological Society no. 1 (Leyden: E. J. Brill); Radin, P. (1956) The Trickster: A Study in American Indian Mythology, pp. 20-24, 137-39 (New York: Greenwood Press). Other, more tangential, associations between homosexuality and turtles occur among the Fox people. In a cautionary tale of two women who had an affair with each other, for example, the erect clitoris of one woman during lesbian sex is described as being like a turtle's penis, while the child that resulted from their union is compared to a soft-shell turtle ("Two Maidens Who Played the Harlot with Each Other," Jones, Fox Texts, pp. 151-53).
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      18
Brant, B. (Degonwadonti) (1985) "Coyote Learns a New Trick," in Mohawk Trail, pp. 31-35 (Ithaca: Firebrand Books) (reprinted in GAI and Roscoe, Living the Spirit, pp. 163-66); Steward, D.-H. (1988) "Coyote and Tehoma," in GAI and Roscoe, Living the Spirit, pp. 157-62; Cameron, A. (1981) "Song of Bear," in Daughters of Copper Woman, pp. 115-19 (Vancouver: Press Gang); Tafoya, "M. Dragonfly"; Robertson, D. V. (1997) "I Ask You to Listen to Who I Am," p. 231, in Jacobs et al., Two-Spirit People, pp. 228-35; Brant, B. (1994) Writing as Witness: Essay and Talk, pp. 61, 69-70, 75, 108 (Toronto: Women's Press); Chrystos (1988) Not Vanishing (Vancouver: Press Gang); Chrystos (1991) Dream On (Vancouver: Press Gang); Chrystos (1995) Fire Power (Vancouver: Press Gang).

      19
George Catlin's original 1867 description of the ritual homosexuality and other sexual imagery in this ceremony was considered so scandalous at the time that it was eliminated from most published versions of his monograph. Only a few copies of the first edition of the book that were delivered to scholars included this material, and even then it was set aside in a special appendix. Catlin, G. (1867/1967) O-kee-pa: A Religious Ceremony and Other Customs of the Mandans, pp. 83-85, centennial edition, edited and with an introduction by J. C. Ewers (New Haven and London: Yale University Press); Bowers, A. W. (1950/1991) Mandan Social and Ceremonial Organization, pp. 131, 145-46 (reprint of the 1950 University of Chicago Press edition) (Moscow, Idaho: University of Idaho Press); Campbell, J. (1988) Historical Atlas of World Mythology, Vol. 1: The Way of the Animal Powers, Part 2: Mythologies of the Great Hunt, pp. 226-31 (New York: Harper & Row).

      20
Extraordinary as it may seem, rites like this may be far more ancient and widespread than previously imagined. Among the Paleolithic cave paintings of Lascaux in France, for example, imagery combining anal penetration of bison bulls, shamanic and sexual ecstasy, hunting motifs, and hermaphroditic animal figures can be found — a striking echo of certain elements in the Okipa ceremony and other Native American belief systems. One picture, regarded as among the most important in the entire Lascaux complex, is of a shaman lying in rapture, with erect penis, in front of a bison bull. Penetrating the bull from behind is a spear that, according to Joseph Campbell, has "transfixed its anus and emerged through its sexual organ." The phallic imagery of the bison is also combined with vulvar symbolism in the shape of the spilled entrails or wound of the beast. Elsewhere in the Lascaux caves, a startling and enigmatic figure of an apparently gender-mixing hoofed mammal appears prominently in one fresco. On the wall of a grotto known as the Rotunda is the image of a pregnant bull whose "two long, straight horns point directly forward from its head ... and [whose] gravid belly hangs nearly to the ground." Dating from around 12,000 B.C., these are probably the earliest known depictions of gender-mixing animals, and they are testimony to an ancient and profound association between variant forms of gender and sexual expression in animals and humans (see Campbell, Historical Atlas of World Mythology, pp. 58-66, for further discussion of these images). Campbell also draws a parallel between some of these figures and the contemporary shamanic practices of the Aranda people of Australia, which involve uncanny correspondences in terms of their mixture of phallic, anal, and male-female imagery. Perhaps not uncoincidentally, the Aranda also participate in a variety of homosexual practices, both overt and "ritualized" (see chapter 2 for discussion of Aranda penis-handling as a ritualized "greeting" gesture between men; for overt homosexual activities, see Ford, C. S., and F. A. Beach [1951] Patterns of Sexual Behavior, p. 132 [New York: Harper and Brothers]; Berndt, R., and C. Berndt [1943] "A Preliminary Report of Field Work in the Ooldea Region, Western South Australia," pp. 276-77, Oceania 13:239-75; Murray, S. O. [1992] "Age-Stratified Homosexuality: Introduction," pp. 5-6, in S. O. Murray, ed., Oceanic Homosexualities, pp. 293-327 [New York: Garland]).

      21
Schlesier, K. H. (1987) The Wolves of Heaven: Cheyenne Shamanism, Ceremonies, and Prehistoric Origins, pp. 7, 14-15, 66-73, 78-111 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press); Grinnell, The Cheyenne Indians, vol. 2, pp. 285-336; Hoebel, E. A. (1960) The Cheyennes: Indians of the Great Plains, pp. 16-17 (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston).

      22
Powers, M.N. (1980) "Menstruation and Reproduction: An Oglala Case," p. 61, Signs 6:54-65; Parsons, E. C. (1939) Pueblo Indian Religion, pp. 831-32 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press); Tyler, H. A. (1975) Pueblo Animals and Myths, pp. 98, 131, 148-50 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press); Duberman, M. B., F. Eggan, and R. O. Clemmer (1979) "Documents in Hopi Indian Sexuality: Imperialism, Culture, and Resistance," pp. 119-20, Radical History Review 20:99-130; Du Bois, C.A. (1935) "Wintu Ethnography," p. 50, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 36:1-148.

      23
Hill, W. W. (1935) "The Status of the Hermaphrodite and Transvestite in Navaho Culture," p. 274, American Anthropologist 37:273-79; Haile et al., Love-Magic and Butterfly People, p. 163; Luckert, The Navajo Hunter Tradition, pp. 176-77; Hill, W.W. (1938) The Agricultural and Hunting Methods of the Navaho Indians, pp. 99, 110, 119, 126-27, Yale University Publications in Anthropology no. 18 (New Haven: Yale University Press).
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      24
For overviews of ritual homosexuality and alternate gender systems in New Guinea and Melanesia, see Herdt, G. H. (1981) Guardians of the Flutes: Idioms of Masculinity (New York: McGraw-Hill); Herdt, G. H., ed., (1984) Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia (Berkeley: University of California Press). On the "third sex" category, see Herdt, G. (1994) "Mistaken Sex: Culture, Biology, and the Third Sex in New Guinea," in G. Herdt, ed., Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History, pp. 419-45 (New York: Zone Books); Poole, F. J. P. (1996) "The Procreative and Ritual Constitution of Female, Male, and Other: Androgynous Beings in the Cultural Imagination of the Bimin-Kuskusmin of Papua New Gunea," in S. P. Ramet, ed., Gender Reversals and Gender Cultures: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives, pp. 197-218 (London: Routledge). For ceremonial transvestism and "male menstruation," see, for example, Schwimmer, E. (1984) "Male Couples in New Guinea," in Herdt, Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 248-91; Lutkehaus, N. C., and P. B. Roscoe, eds., (1995) Gender Rituals: Female Initiation in Melanesia, pp. 16-17, 36, 49, 69, 107, 120, 198-200, 229 (New York: Routledge); A. Strathern, in Callender and Kochems, "The North American Berdache," p. 464.

      25
Herdt, Guardians of the Flutes, p. 94; Schwimmer, "Male Couples in New Guinea," p. 271; Van Baal, J. (1984) "The Dialectics of Sex in Marind-anim Culture," in Herdt, Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 128-66.

      26
Herdt, Guardians of the Flutes, pp. 87-94; Poole, "The Procreative and Ritual Constitution of Female, Male, and Other," pp. 205, 217; Sorum, A. (1984) "Growth and Decay: Bedamini Notions of Sexuality" in Herdt, Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 318-36; Lindenbaum, S. (1984) "Variations on a Sociosexual Theme in Melanesia," in Herdt, Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 83-126.

      27
An echo of these beliefs can also be found in native North America: the Cherokee maintain that female opossums (a North American marsupial) are essentially parthenogenetic, i.e., they reproduce without males (Fradkin, A. [1990] Cherokee Folk Zoology: The Animal World of a Native American People, 1700-1838, pp. 377-78 [New York: Garland]).

      28
Herdt (Guardians of the Flutes, p. 91) tentatively identifies this as the "crested bird of paradise"; however, the description of its round display platforms (constructed of twigs and straw, with a central pole) strongly suggests that this is actually a species of bowerbird. Most likely it is MacGregor's bowerbird (Amblyornis macgregoriae), whose "maypole" bower type matches this description, and whose orange crest also fits the description of this species provided by Herdt. For further details, see Gilliard, E. T. (1969) "MacGregor's Gardener Bower Bird," in Birds of Paradise and Bower Birds, pp. 300-311 (Garden City, N.Y.: Natural History Press); Johnsgard, P. A. (1994) Arena Birds: Sexual Selection and Behavior, pp. 206, 211-12 (Washington, D.C., and London: Smithsonian Institution Press). Among the Kaluli people, the (male) Raggiana's Bird of Paradise and other brightly colored birds are also considered female; men adorn themselves with their plumes to acquire the beauty of these supposedly feminine creatures (Feld, S. [1982] Sound and Sentiment: Birds, Weeping, Poetics, and Song in Kaluli Expression, pp. 55, 65-66 [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press]).

      29
Although Poole (1996:205) identifies this only as the "night bird," it is most likely a species of nightjar (family Caprimulgidae), frogmouth (family Podargidae), or owlet-nightjar (family Aegothelidae).

      30
Herdt, Guardians of the Flutes, pp. 131-57; Gardner, D. S. (1984) "A Note on the Androgynous Qualities of the Cassowary: Or Why the Mianmin Say It Is Not a Bird," Oceania 55:137-45; Bulmer, R. N. H. (1967) "Why Is the Cassowary Not a Bird? A Problem of Zoological Taxonomy Among the Karam of the New Guinea Highlands," Man 2:5-25; Juillerat, B., ed., (1992) Shooting the Sun: Ritual and Meaning in West Sepik, pp. 65, 282 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press); Feld, Sound and Sentiment, pp. 68-71; Tuzin, D. (1997) The Cassowary's Revenge: The Life and Death of Masculinity in a New Guinea Society, pp. 80-82, 94, 209-10 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press). Some Australian Aboriginal peoples hold parallel beliefs about a related bird, the Emu, being all-female or having ambiguous or simultaneous genders (Maddock, K. [1975] "The Emu Anomaly," pp. 112-13, 118, 121, in L. R. Hiatt, ed., Australian Aboriginal Mythology, pp. 102-22 [Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies]).

      31
Gell, A. (1975) Metamorphosis of the Cassowaries: Umeda Society, Language, and Ritual, pp. 180, 182, 184, 225-26, 233-34, 239-40, 250, L.S.E. Monographs on Social Anthropology no. 51 (London: Athlone Press); Gell, A. (1971) "Penis Sheathing and Ritual Status in a West Sepik Village," pp. 174-75, Man 6:165-81.

      32
These individuals are "born with labial folds, reared as girls, and then recognized as being the descendants of Yomnok when distinctive but diminutive male genitalia descend into view on the eve of puberty." This type of intersexuality (known medically as 5-alpha reductase male pseudo-hermaphroditism) also occurs fairly frequently among the Sambia, where it is recognized as a "third sex" (Poole, "The Procreative and Ritual Constitution of Female, Male, and Other," pp. 209, 218; Herdt, "Mistaken Sex"). The species of echidna referred to is probably the long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijni; for more on indigenous views of echidnas in New Guinea, see Jorgensen, D. (1991) "Echidna and Kuyaam: Classification and Anomalous Animals in Telefolmin," Journal of the Polynesian Society 100:365-80.

      33
Poole, "The Procreative and Ritual Constitution of Female, Male, and Other," pp. 197, 203-5, 209-10, 216-17; Poole, F. J. P. (1981) "Transforming 'Natural' Woman: Female Ritual Leaders and Gender Ideology Among Bimin-Kuskusmin," pp. 117, 120, 153-60, in S. B. Ortner and H. Whitehead, eds., Sexual Meanings: The Cultural Construction of Gender and Sexuality, pp. 116-65 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Poole, F. J. P. (1982) "The Ritual Forging of Identity: Aspects of Person and Self in Bimin-Kuskusmin Male Initiation, pp. 125-31, in G.H. Herdt, ed., Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, pp. 99-154 (Berkeley: University of California Press).

      34
Layard, J. (1942) Stone Men of Malekula, especially pp. 482-94 (London: Chatto and Windus); Allen, M. (1981) "Innovation, Inversion, and Revolution as Political Tactics in West Aoba," in M. Allen, ed., Vanuatu: Politics, Economics, and Ritual in Island Melanesia, pp. 105-34 (Sydney: Academic Press); Allen, M. R. (1984) "Ritualized Homosexuality, Male Power, and Political Organization in North Vanuatu: A Comparative Analysis," in Herdt, Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 83-126; Battaglia, D. (1991) "Punishing the Yams: Leadership and Gender Ambivalence on Sabarl Island," p. 94, in M. Godelier and M. Strathern, eds., Big Men and Great Men: Personifications of Power in Melanesia, pp. 83-96 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
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      35
Baker, J. R. (1925) "On Sex-Intergrade Pigs: Their Anatomy, Genetics, and Developmental Physiology," British Journal of Experimental Biology 2:247-63; Baker, J. R. (1928) "Notes on New Hebridean Customs, with Special Reference to the Intersex Pig," Man 28:113-18; Baker, J. R. (1928) "A New Type of Mammalian Intersexuality," British Journal of Experimental Biology 6:56-64; Baker, J. R. (1929) Man and Animals in the New Hebrides, pp. 22, 30-31,115-30 (London: George Routledge & Sons); Jolly, M. (1984) "The Anatomy of Pig Love: Substance, Spirit, and Gender in South Pentecost, Vanuatu," pp. 84-85, 101, 104-5, Canberra Anthropology 7:78-108; Jolly, M. (1991) "Soaring Hawks and Grounded Persons: The Politics of Rank and Gender in North Vanuatu," pp. 54, 59, 67, 71, in Godelier and Strathern, Big Men and Great Men, pp. 48-80; Rodman, W. (1996) "The Boars of Bali Ha'i: Pigs in Paradise," in J. Bonnemaison, C. Kaufmann, K. Huffman, and D. Tryon, eds., Arts of Vanuatu, pp. 158-67 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press); Huffman, K. W. (1996) "Trading, Cultural Exchange, and Copyright: Important Aspects of Vanuatu Arts" and "Plates and Bowls from Northern and Central Vanuatu," pp. 183, 192, 228, in Bonnemaison et al., Arts of Vanuatu, pp. 182-94, 226-31.

      36
In accordance with many anthropological treatments, North American Inuit cultures are here included with the Siberian culture complex, with which they share many features. They also, of course, show a number of similarities to non-Inuit Native American peoples (as do many Siberian cultures), as well as a large number of unique features, and this arrangement is largely a matter of exposition rather than a reflection of actual or perceived cultural relationships.

      37
Balzer, M. M. (1996) "Sacred Genders in Siberia: Shamans, Bear Festivals, and Androgyny," in Ramet, Gender Reversals and Gender Cultures, pp. 164-82; Bogoras, W. (1904-9) The Chukchee, pp. 448-57, Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 11, Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. 7 (Leiden: E. J. Brill; New York: G. E. Stechert [reprinted in 1975, New York: AMS Press]); Jochelson, W. (1908) The Koryak, pp. 47, 65, 469, 502, 525, 733, Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 10, Publications of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition, vol. 6 (Leiden: E. J. Brill; New York: G. E. Stechert [reprinted in 1975, New York: AMS Press]); Murray, S. O. (1992) "Vladimir Bogoraz's Account of Chukchi Transformed Shamans" and "Vladimir Iokalson's Reports of Northeastern Siberian Transformed Shamans," in S. O. Murray, ed., Oceanic Homosexualities, pp. 293-327 (New York: Garland).

      38
Serov, S. I. (1988) "Guardians and Spirit-Masters of Siberia," pp. 241, 247-49, in W. W. Fitzhugh and A. Crowell, eds., Crossroads of Continents: Cultures of Siberia and Alaska, pp. 241-55 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press); Pavlinskaya, L. R. (1994) "The Shaman Costume: Image and Myth," in G. Seaman and J. S. Day, eds., Ancient Traditions: Shamanism in Central Asia and the Americas, pp. 257-64 (Niwot, Colo.: University Press of Colorado); Zornickaja, M. J. (1978) "Dances of Yakut Shamans," in V. Dioszegi and M. Hoppal, eds., Shamanism in Siberia, pp. 299-307 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado); Hamayon, R. N. (1992) "Game and Games, Fortune and Dualism in Siberian Shamanism," in M. Hoppal and J. Pentikainen, eds., Northern Religions and Shamanism, pp. 134-37 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado); Bogoras, The Chukchee, pp. 268-9.

      39
Saladin d'Anglure, B. (1986) "Du foetus au chamane: la construction d'un 'troisieme sexe' inuit" (From Fetus to Shaman: The Construction of an Inuit "Third Sex"), especially pp. 72, 84, 86, Etudes/Inuit/Studies 10:25-113 (selections translated into English and reprinted in A. Mills and R. Slobodin, eds., [1994] Amerindian Rebirth: Reincarnation Belief among North American Indians and Inuit, pp. 82-106 [Toronto: University of Toronto Press]); Saladin d'Anglure, B. (1983) "Ijiqqat: voyage au pays de l'invisible inuit (Ijiqqat: Travel to the Land of the Inuit Invisible), pp. 72, 81, Etudes/Inuit/Studies 7:67-83; Saladin d'Anglure, B. (1990) "Frere-lune (Taqqiq), soeur-soleil (Siqiniq), et l'intelligence du monde (Sila): Cosmologie inuit, cosmographie arctique, et espace-temps chamanique" (Brother-Moon [Taqqiq], Sister-Sun [Siqiniq], and the Intelligence of the World [Sila]: Inuit Cosmology, Arctic Cosmography, and Shamanistic Space-Time), pp. 96-98, Etudes/Inuit/Studies 14:75-139; Boas, F. (1901-7) "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," p. 509, Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 15:1-570.

      40
Saladin d'Anglure, B. (1990) "Nanook, Super-Male: The Polar Bear in the Imaginary Space and Social Time of the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic," especially pp. 190, 193, in R. Wills, ed., Signifying Animals: Human Meaning in the Natural World, pp. 178-95 (London: Unwin Hyman).

      41
Balzer, "Sacred Genders in Siberia," pp. 169-74.

      42
Fienup-Riordan, A. (1994) Boundaries and Passages: Rule and Ritual in Yup'ik Eskimo Oral Tradition, pp. 114, 139, 274-79, 293, 297-98, 307-12, 320, 345-50 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press); Kaplan, S. A. (1984) "Note," in E. S. Burch Jr., ed., The Central Yup'ik Eskimos, supplementary issue of Etudes/Inuit/Studies 8:2; Morrow, P. (1984) "It Is Time for Drumming: A Summary of Recent Research on Yup'ik Ceremonialism," pp. 119, 138, in E. S. Burch Jr., ed., The Central Yup'ik Eskimos, supplementary issue of Etudes/Inuit/Studies 8:113-40; Fienup-Riordan, A. (1996) The Living Tradition of Yup'ik Masks: Agayuliyararput (Our Way of Making Prayer), pp. 39, 63, 87-88, 92, 98, 100, 176 (Seattle: University of Washington Press); Chaussonnet, V. (1988) "Needles and Animals: Women's Magic," p. 216, in Fitzhugh and Crowell, Crossroads of Continents, pp. 209-26. Among the Cumberland Sound Inuit of eastern Canada, the spirit-guardian and mother of sea mammals, Sedna, has an attendant named Qailertetang who is also represented during ceremonies by a man dressed in a woman's costume (Boas, "The Eskimo of Baffin Land and Hudson Bay," pp. 139-40).
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      43
Bogoras, The Chukchee, pp. 79, 84; Diachenko, V. (1994) "The Horse in Yakut Shamanism," pp. 268-69, in Seaman and Day, Ancient Traditions, pp. 265-71.

      44
On handedness/laterality in various animals, see Marino, L., and J. Stowe (1997) "Lateralized Behavior in Two Captive Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)," Zoo Biology 16:173-77; Marino, L., and J. Stowe (1997) "Lateralized Behavior in a Captive Beluga Whale (Delphinapterus leucas)," Aquatic Mammals 23:101-3; McGrew, W. C., and L. F. Marchant (1996) "On Which Side of the Apes? Ethological Study of Laterality of Hand Use," in W. C. McGrew, L. E. Marchant, and T. Nishida, eds., Great Ape Societies, pp. 255-72 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Clapham, P. J., E. Leimkuhler, B. K. Gray, and D. K. Mattila (1995) "Do Humpback Whales Exhibit Lateralized Behavior?" Animal Behavior 50:73-82; Morgan, M. J. (1992) "On the Evolutionary Origin of Right-Handedness," Current Biology 2:15-17; MacNeilage, P. F., M. G. Studdert-Kennedy, and B. Lindblom (1987) "Primate Handedness Reconsidered," Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:247-303; Rogers, L. J. (1980) "Lateralization in the Avian Brain," Bird Behavior 2:1-12; Cole, J. (1955) "Paw Preference in Cats Related to Hand Preference in Animals and Man," Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 48:337-45; Friedman, H., and M. Davis (1938) "'Left Handedness' in Parrots," Auk 55:478-80.

      45
Beck, B. B. (1980) Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals, p. 39 (New York: Garland); Koch, T. J. (1975) The Year of the Polar Bear, p. 32 (Indianapolis and New York: Bobbs-Merrill); Bruemmer, F. (1972) Experiences with Arctic Animals, p. 92 (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson); Perry, R. (1966) The World of the Polar Bear, pp. 11, 76 (Seattle: University of Washington Press); Haig-Thomas, D. (1939) Tracks in the Snow, p. 230 (New York: Oxford University Press).

      46
Lindesay, J. (1987) "Laterality Shift in Homosexual Men," Neuropsychologia 25:965-69; McCormick, C. M., S. F. Witelson, and E. Kinstone (1990) "Left-handedness in Homosexual Men and Women: Neuroendocrine Implications," Psychoneuroendocrinology 1:69-76; Watson, D. B., and S. Coren (1992) "Left-handedness in Male-to-Female Transsexuals," JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association) 267:1342; Coren, S. (1992) The Left-Hander Syndrome: The Causes and Consequences of Left-Handedness, pp. 199-202 (New York: Free Press).

      47
For scientific experiments, see Cushing, B. S. (1983) "Responses of Polar Bears to Human Menstrual Odors," in E. C. Meslow, ed., Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Bear Research and Management (1980), pp. 270-274 (West Glacier, Mont.: International Association for Bear Research and Management); Cushing, B. S. (1980) The Effects of Human Menstrual Odors, Other Scents, and Ringed Seal Vocalizations on the Polar Bear (master's thesis, University of Montana). For additional discussion of the phenomenon, see March, K. S. (1980) "Deer, Bears, and Blood: A Note on Nonhuman Animal Response to Menstrual Odor," American Anthropologist 82:125-27. For an alternative evaluation of the scientific evidence and discussion of the way these findings have been misinterpreted to mean that bears are more likely to attack women — and therefore used to justify policies excluding women from certain forestry jobs — see Byrd, C. P. (1988) Of Bears and Women: Investigating the Hypothesis That Menstruation Attracts Bears (master's thesis, University of Montana).

      48
Bears (Cattet 1988).

      49
Common Chimpanzee (Egozcue 1972); Rhesus Macaque (Sullivan and Drobeck 1966; Weiss et al. 1973); Savanna Baboon (Bielert 1984; Bielert et al. 1980; Wadsworth et al. 1978); Bowhead Whale and other whales and dolphins (Tarpley et al. 1995); Eastern Gray Kangaroo and other marsupials (Sharman et al. 1990).

      50
Another set of terms used by biologists to describe certain types of gender mixing are specific to Deer, where they often refer to the unusual antler configurations of these individuals. Such animals are called velvet-horns in White-tailed Deer, cactus bucks in Mule Deer, perukes in Moose and various European deer, and hummels in Red Deer. See the animal profiles in part 2 for further information.

      51
Benirschke, K. (1981) "Hermaphrodites, Freemartins, Mosaics, and Chimaeras in Animals," in C. R. Austin and R. G. Edwards, eds., Mechanisms of Sex Differentiation in Animals and Man, pp. 421-63 (London: Academic Press); Reinboth, R., ed., (1975) Intersexuality in the Animal Kingdom (New York: Springer-Verlag); Perry, J. S. (1969) Intersexuality (Proceedings of the Third Symposium of the Society for the Study of Fertility), Journal of Reproduction and Fertility supplement no. 7 (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications); Armstrong, C. N., and A. J. Marshall, eds., (1964) Intersexuality in Vertebrates Including Man (London and New York: Academic Press). For an overview of intersexuality in humans, see Fausto-Stirling, A. (1993) "The Five Sexes: Why Male and Female Are Not Enough," The Sciences 33(2):20-24.

      52
Graves, G. R. (1996) "Comments on a Probable Gynandromorphic Black-throated Blue Warbler," Wilson Bulletin 108:178-80; Stratton, G. E. (1995) "A Gynandromorphic Schizocosa (Araneae, Lycosidae)," Journal of Arachnology 23:130-33; Patten, M. A. (1993) "A Probable Gynandromorphic Black-throated Blue Warbler," Wilson Bulletin 105:695-98; Kumerloeve, H. (1987) "Le gynandromorphisme chez les oiseaux — recapitulation des donnees connues," Alauda 55:1-9; Dexter, R. W. (1985) "Nesting History of a Banded Hermaphroditic Chimney Swift," North American Bird Bander 10:39; Hannah-Alava, A. (1960) "Genetic Mosaics," Scientific American 202(5):118-30; Kumerloeve, H. (1954) "On Gynandromorphism in Birds," Emu 54:71-72.

      53
Fredga, K. (1994) "Bizarre Mammalian Sex-Determining Mechanisms," in R. V. Short and E. Balaban, eds., The Differences Between the Sexes, pp. 419-31 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Ishihara, M. (1994) "Persistence of Abnormal Females That Produce Only Female Progeny with Occasional Recovery to Normal Females in Lepidoptera," Researches on Population Ecology 36:261-69.
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      54
Moles (Jimenez, R., M. Burgos, L. Caballero, and R. Diaz de la Guardia [1988] "Sex Reversal in a Wild Population of Talpa occidentalis [Insectivora, Mammalia]," Genetical Research 52[2]:135-40; McVean, G., and L. D. Hurst [1996] "Genetic Conflicts and the Paradox of Sex Determination: Three Paths to the Evolution of Female Intersexuality in a Mammal," Journal of Theoretical Biology 179:199-211); mole voles (Fredga, "Bizarre Mammalian Sex-Determining Mechanisms"); Orang-utan (Dutrillaux et al. 1975; Turleau et al. 1975); Hanuman Langur (Egozcue 1972).

      55
Johnsgard, Arena Birds, p. 242.

      56
On the cassowary mating system, see Crome, F. H. J. (1976) "Some Observations on the Biology of the Cassowary in Northern Queensland," Emu 76:8-14.

      57
There are actually three distinct, but closely related, species of cassowaries; this genital configuration is based on descriptions of the moruk or Bennett's cassowary (Casuarius bennettii) in King, A. S. (1981) "Phallus," in A. S. King and J. McLelland, eds., Form and Function in Birds, vol. 2, pp. 107-47 (London: Academic Press). Males and females of a number of other birds, including related flightless species such as Ostriches and Rheas, as well as ducks and geese, also possess a similar genital/anal configuration. Incidentally, the phallus /clitoris of the cassowary (as well as of these other birds) consistently bends to the left when erect (owing to the asymmetrical arrangement of its internal tissues), and males are said to mount females from the left side because of the curvature of their organs. These anatomical and behavioral facts suggest an interesting parallel to Native American beliefs about the left-handedness of (gender-mixing) Bears. Although there are no reports of indigenous New Guinean beliefs about "left-sidedness" in cassowaries, the Arapesh people do represent the cassowary mother figure as the left foot of an ancestral spirit (Tuzin, The Cassowary's Revenge, p. 115); the existence of other such connections is worth investigating.

      58
Callender and Kochems, "The North American Berdache," pp. 448-49; Roscoe, Changing Ones, p. 9; Allen, "Ritualized Homosexuality, Male Power, and Political Organization in North Vanuatu," p. 117; American Bison (Roe 1970:63-64); Savanna (Chacma) Baboon (Marais 1922/1969:205-6; Bielert et al. 1980:4-5); Hooded Warbler (Niven 1993:191 [cf. Lynch et al. 1985:718]); Northern Elephant Seal (Le Boeuf 1974:173); Red Deer (Darling 1937:170); Black-headed Gull (van Rhijn 1985:87, 100); Common Garter Snake (Mason and Crews 1985:59; Mason 1993:264); Bighorn Sheep (Berger 1985:334). "Hypermasculinity" also characterizes (some forms of) male homosexuality in other cultures, most notably contemporary North America. As one recent observer of the gay scene comments, "It's like a very intense male bonding thing ... it's the ultimate in masculinity. People think faggots are queers; they're fairies. No way. They're more men than anybody, 'cause they're totally homoerotic. How much more masculine can you get?" ("Walter," quoted in Devor, H. [1997] FTM: Female-to-Male Transsexuals in Society, p. 504 [Bloomington: Indiana University Press]).

      59
Wilson, E. O. (1992) The Diversity of Life (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap/Harvard University Press). For another example of a New Guinean (Fore) indigenous bird taxonomy that nearly matches that of western ornithologists, see Diamond, J. (1966) "Zoological Classification System of a Primitive People," Science 151:1102-4.

      60
Milton M.R. Freeman, quoted in Mander, J. (1991) In the Absence of the Sacred: The Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations, p. 259 (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books).

      61
Walrus: throat pouches (Fay 1960; Schevill et al. 1966); adoption (Fay 1982; Eley 1978); all-male herds (Miller 1975; 1976); stampedes (Fay and Kelly 1980).

      62
Musk-ox (Smith 1976:126-27; Tener 1965:89-90). See also discussion in Freeman, M. M. R. (1984) "New/Old Approaches to Renewable Resource Management in the North," in Northern Frontier Development — Alaska/Canada Perspectives (Twenty-Third Annual Meeting of the Western Regional Science Association, Monterey, Calif., February 1984); Freeman, M. M. R. (1986) "Renewable Resources, Economics, and Native Communities," in Native People and Renewable Resource Management, 1986 Symposium of the Alberta Society of Professional Biologists (Edmonton: Alberta Society of Professional Biologists); Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred, pp. 257-60.

      63
Norris, K. S., and K. Pryor (1991) "Some Thoughts on Grandmothers," in K. Pryor and K. S. Norris, eds., Dolphin Societies: Discoveries and Puzzles, pp. 287-89 (Berkeley: University of California Press).

      64
Feit, H. A. (1986) "James Bay Cree Indian Management and Moral Consideration of Fur-Bearers," in Native People and Renewable Resource Management, pp. 49-62; Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred, pp. 59-61.

      65
Miller, "People, Berdaches, and Left-handed Bears," p. 286. Whether direct knowledge of animal homosexuality (rather than transgender) has contributed to indigenous belief systems remains an open question, although it seems quite likely that observation of a species' same-sex activity may also have been a factor in its status as a shamanic "power animal." Although there are no specific reports of this in the ethnographic literature (which is, however, notoriously incomplete with regard to matters of sexuality, particularly homosexuality), there are several suggestive cases. In a number of Native American cultures, animals are selected as symbolically important for shamanistic practices because their biology and behavior exhibit particularly salient or "unusual" features. In the Pacific Northwest culture region, for example, "animals that shamans relied on as spirit helpers [including shore birds, sea mammals, otters, and Mountain Goats] were those that inhabit border areas of the environment such as the shoreline, the water's surface, or the tops of trees. Their behavior was thought to represent their supernatural ability to move through the different zones of the cosmos" — echoing the shaman's ability to traverse different worlds. (This also corresponds to the well-established ecological principle in Western science that the greatest diversity, flexibility, and environmental richness is to be found in the border zones between major ecosystems, such as the region where forest meets grassland.) This is especially true for the (American) oystercatcher, whose preeminent status as a spirit animal in Tlingit shamanism is based not only on its inhabiting border zones, but {727} also its furtive behavior and habit of being among the first creatures to sound alarm at the approach of danger (likened to the shaman's function as "guardian" for his or her people) (Wardwell, A. [1996] Tangible Visions: Northwest Coast Indian Shamanism and Its Art, pp. 40-43, 96, 239 [New York: Monacelli Press]; for similar observations concerning totemic or shamanic animals in Yup'ik and New Guinean cultures, see Fienup-Riordan, Boundaries and Passages, pp. 124, 130-31, and Jorgensen, "Echidna and Kuyaam," pp. 374, 378). Homosexuality is also part of the biological repertoires of many of these species (e.g., various shore birds, sea mammals, and Mountain Goats) or else of their close relatives (e.g., the [Eurasian] Oystercatcher). It is possible, therefore, that observed sexual variance in animals — paralleling the shaman's straddling of sexual boundaries — might also have contributed to the spiritual importance of such creatures. Another interesting example concerns red ants, which feature prominently as shamanic helpers in a number of indigenous cultures of south-central California (all of which, incidentally, recognize two-spirit people). The religious and cultural importance of ants is tied to their powerful medicinal and hallucinogenic properties as well as their use in ritual activities. This includes the extraordinary practice of swallowing large quantities of live ants to induce visions and the acquistion of spirit-animal helpers. Although no homosexual activity has yet been reported for these species (identified as belonging to the genus Pogonomyrmex), nor is human gender or sexual variance directly associated with these ant-related beliefs or practices, there are some intriguing clues. Recently, for example, homosexual activity was discovered in a different species of Red Ant (Formica sub-polita) endemic to the semidesert regions of the western United States (O'Neill 1994:96). Moreover, among the Kawaiisu people (where shamanic ant practices are especially prominent), unusual habits of animals are singled out as a potent spiritual sign, and two-spirit people (who may occupy positions of power, e.g., as chiefs) are reported to be particularly attuned to such animal behaviors (Groark, K. P. [1996] "Ritual and Therapeutic Use of 'Hallucinogenic' Harvester Ants [Pogonomyrmex] in Native South-Central California," Journal of Ethnobiology 16:1-29; Zigmond, M. [1977] "The Supernatural World of the Kawaiisu," pp. 60-61, 74, in T. C. Blackburn, ed., Flowers of the Wind: Papers on Ritual, Myth, and Symbolism in California and the Southwest, pp. 59-95 [Socorro, N.Mex.: Ballena Press]). Once again, it is not unreasonable to suppose that indigenous knowledge or observations of homosexuality (or other sexual variance) in red ants might have been an additional factor in their elevation to religious prominence. Certainly these examples are highly speculative, but they suggest some fascinating connections between animal biology, shamanic practices, and two-spiritedness that deserve further investigation.

      66
Roe 1970:63-64 (American Bison); Powers, Oglala Religion, p. 58; Wissler, "Societies and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala Division of the Teton Dakota," p. 92; Dorsey, J. O. (1890) "A Study of Siouan Cults," p. 379, Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 11:361-544.

      67
Haile et al., Love-Magic and Butterfly People, p. 163. The term nadleeh is also applied to intersexual goats, horses, cattle, and (presumably) other wild game animals. There is also evidence in the Tsistsistas language of possible recognition of transgender in animals: the proper name Semoz is translated as "effeminate bull" (Petter, R. C. [1915] English-Cheyenne Dictionary, p. 196 [Kettle Falls, Wash.: Valdo Petter]). This is not, however, related to the Tsistsistas term for human two-spiritness, hemaneh, although it is possible that this is the name of a two-spirited person.

      68
Reid, B. (1979) "History of Domestication of the Cassowary in Mendi Valley, Southern Highlands Papua New Guinea," Ethnomedizin/Ethnomedicine 5:407-32; Reid, B. (1981/82) "The Cassowary and the Highlanders: Present Day Contribution and Value to Village Life of a Traditionally Important Wildlife Resource in Papua New Guinea," Ethnomedizin/Ethnomedicine 7:149-240.

      69
Gardner, "A Note on the Androgynous Qualities of the Cassowary," p. 143. The Sambia and Arapesh, however, are apparently not aware of the bird's penis (Herdt, Guardians of the Flutes, p. 145; Tuzin, The Cassowary's Revenge, pp. 80-82). There is no mention of the male cassowary's phallus in the standard Western scientific reference for sexual behavior in this species (Crome 1976), nor mention of the female's phallus/clitoris in the species profiles found in comprehensive ornithological handbooks such as Folch, A. (1992) "Ca-suariidae (Cassowaries)," in J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds., Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks, pp. 90-97 (Barcelona: Lynx Edicions); Marchant, S., and P. J. Higgins, eds., (1990) Handbook of Australian, New Zealand, and Antarctic Birds, vol. 1, pp. 60-67 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press).

      70
Koch, Year of the Polar Bear, p. 32; Harington, C. R. (1962) "A Bear Fable?" The Beaver: A Magazine of the North 293:4-7; Perry, World of the Polar Bear, p. 91; Miller, "People, Berdaches, and Left-Handed Bears," p. 286.

      71
Roe 1970 (especially appendix D: "Albinism in Buffalo," pp. 715-28); McHugh 1972: 123-29; Banfield, A. W. E. (1974) The Mammals of Canada, p. 405 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press); Berger, J., and M. C. Pearl (1994) Bison: Mating and Conservation in Small Populations, p. 34 (New York: Columbia University Press); Pickering, R. B. (1997) Seeing the White Buffalo (Denver: Denver Museum of Natural History Press; Boulder: Johnson Books).

      72
The poorwill — along with a number of other birds such as the related common nighthawk and other goat-suckers, as well as some hummingbirds — also sometimes enters daily or nocturnal periods of torpor that typically last less than 24 hours. The poorwill, however, is the only species that exhibits extended periods of torpor. See Jaeger, E. C. (1949) "Further Observations on the Hibernation of the Poor-will," Condor 51:105-9; Jaeger, E. C. (1948) "Does the Poor-will 'Hibernate'?" Condor 50:45-46; Brigham, R. M. (1992) "Daily Torpor in a Free-Ranging Goatsucker, the Common Poorwill (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)," Physiological Zoology 65:457-72; Kissner, K. J., and R. M. Brigham (1993) "Evidence for the Use of Torpor by Incubating and Brooding Common Poorwills Phalaenoptilus nuttallii," Ornis Scandinivica 24:333-34; Csada, R. D., and R. M. Brigham (1994) "Reproduction Constrains the Use of Daily Torpor by Free-ranging Common Poorwills (Phalaenoptilus nuttallii)," Journal of Zoology, London 234:209-16; Brigham, R. M., K. H. Morgan, and P. C. James (1995) "Evidence That Free-Ranging Common Nighthawks May Enter Torpor," Northwestern Naturalist 76:149-50.
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      73
Russell, F. (1975) The Pima Indians, p. x (Tucson: University of Arizona Press); Grant, V., and K. A. Grant (1983) "Behavior of Hawkmoths on Flowers of Datura meteloides," Botanical Gazette 144:280-84; Nabham, G. P., and S. St. Antoine (1993) "The Loss of Floral and Faunal Story: The Extinction of Experience," in S. R. Kellert and E. O. Wilson, eds., The Biophilia Hypothesis, pp. 229-50 (Washington, D.C.: Island Press).

      74
Bulmer, R. (1968) "Worms That Croak and Other Mysteries of Karam [sic] Natural History," Mankind 6:621-39. Among the worm species identified as particularly "vocal" is Pheretima musica of Indonesia. Bulmer points out, however, that frogs rather than earthworms are the more likely source of the actual sounds associated by the Kalam with worms.

      75
Bauer, A. M., and A. P. Russell (1987) "Hoplodactylus delcourti (Reptilia: Gekkonidae) and the Kawekaweau of Maori Folklore," Journal of Ethnobiology 7:83-91.

      76
The plant, identified as Ligusticum porteri, is widely used as an indigenous herbal medicine throughout the southwestern United States and Mexcio, where it is known by various names including osha, chuchupa(s)te, and smelly root. Sigstedt, S. (1990) "Bear Medicine: 'Self-Medication' by Animals," Journal of Ethnobiology 10:257; Clayton, D. H., and N. D. Wolfe (1993) "The Adaptive Significance of Self-Medication," Trends in Ecology and Evolution 8:60-63; Rodriguez, E., and R. Wrangham (1993) "Zoopharmacognosy: The Use of Medicinal Plants by Animals," in K. R. Downum, J. T. Romeo, and H. A. Stafford, eds, Phytochemical Potential of Tropical Plants, pp. 89-105, Recent Advances in Phytochemistry vol. 27 (New York: Plenum Press); Beck, J. J., and F. R. Stermitz (1995) "Addition of Methyl Thioglycolate and Benzylamine to (Z)-Ligustilide, a Bioactive Unsaturated Lactone Constituent of Several Herbal Medicines," Journal of Natural Products 58:1047-55; Linares, E., and R. A. Bye Jr. (1987) "A Study of Four Medicinal Plant Complexes of Mexico and Adjacent United States," Journal of Ethnopharmacology 19:153-83.

      77
Arima, E. Y. (1983) The West Coast People: The Nootka of Vancouver Island and Cape Flattery, British Columbia Provincial Museum Special Publication no. 6, pp. 2, 102 (Victoria: British Columbia Provincial Museum). This culture (like most other indigenous cultures) was "interrupted" relatively recently, of course, by the disease, genocide, and cultural suppression brought on by European immigrants — forces that have nevertheless failed to obliterate these people or their traditions.

      78
As some researchers have pointed out, this is largely because most Western scientists consider traditional aboriginal knowledge to be "unscientific" and difficult to separate from its cultural context (which often includes "fantastic" or "mythological" elements that are seemingly at odds with orthodox Western scientific principles). For further discussion of this view as well as the potential for collaboration between indigenous and Western scientists, see Pearson, D., and the Ngaanyatjarra Council (1997) "Aboriginal Involvement in the Survey and Management of Rock-Wallabies," Australian Mammalogy 19:249-56.

      79
Dumbacher, J. P., B. M. Beeler, T. F. Spande, H. M. Garrafo, and J. W. Daly (1992) "Homobatrachotoxin in the Genus Pitohui: Chemical Defense in Birds?" Science 258:799-801; Dumbacher, J. P. (1994) "Chemical Defense in New Guinean Birds," Journal fur Ornithologie 135:407; Majnep, I. S., and R. Bulmer (1977) Birds of My Kalam Country (Mnmon Yad Kalam Yakt), p. 103 (Aukland: Aukland University Press); Dumbacher, J. P., and S. Pruett-Jones (1996) "Avian Chemical Defense," in V. Nolan Jr., and E. D. Ketterson, eds., Current Ornithology, vol. 13, pp. 137-74 (New York: Plenum Press). See also the inclusion of indigenous New Guinean observations on the courtship behaviors of Birds of Paradise in Frith, C. B., and D. W. Frith (1997) "Courtship and Mating of the King of Saxony Bird of Paradise Pteridophora alberti in New Guinea with Comment on Their Taxonomic Significance," pp. 186, 190-91, Emu 97:185-93.

      80
Stephenson, R. O., and R. T. Ahgook (1975) "The Eskimo Hunter's View of Wolf Ecology and Behavior," in M. W. Fox, ed., The Wild Canids: Their Systematics, Behavioral Ecology, and Evolution, pp. 286-91 (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold). See also the inclusion of Inuit observations on the behavior and distribution of Orcas in Reeves and Mitchell (1988).

      81
From a letter written to Dean Hamer and excerpted (anonymously) in his book The Science of Desire: The Search for the Gay Gene and the Biology of Behavior, p. 213 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994).

      82
Steward, "Coyote and Tehoma," p. 160.

      83
Beston, H. (1928) The Outermost House: A Year of Life on the Great Beach of Cape Cod, p. 25 (New York: Rinehart); Bey, H. (1994) Immediatism, p. 1 (Edinburgh and San Francisco: AK Press).

      84
R. Pirsig, quoted in Carse, Finite and Infinite Games.

      85
Ibid., p. 127.

      86
Worster, D. (1990) "The Ecology of Chaos and Harmony," Environmental History Review 14:1-18.

      87
Bunyard P., and E. Goldsmith, eds., (1989) "Towards a Post-Darwinian Concept of Evolution," in P. Bunyard and E. Goldsmith, eds., Gaia and Evolution, Proceedings of the Second Annual Camelford Conference on the Implications of the Gaia Thesis, pp. 146-51 (Camelford: Wadebridge Ecological Centre). This school of thought is also sometimes called "post-neo-Darwinian" evolution, to emphasize its divergence from other, less recent, evolutionary theorizing that has occurred subsequent to Darwin (since the latter is generally characterized as "neo-Darwinian").

      88
Ho, M.-W., and P. T. Saunders (1984) "Pluralism and Convergence in Evolutionary Theory" and preface, in M.-W. Ho and P. T. Saunders, eds., Beyond Neo-Darwinism: An Introduction to the New Evolutionary Paradigm, pp. ix-x, 3-12 (London: Academic Press).
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      89
For further discussion and exemplification, see Ho, M.-W., P. Saunders, and S. Fox (1986) "A New Paradigm for Evolution," New Scientist 109(1497):41-43; and the numerous articles in Ho and Saunders, Beyond Neo-Darwinism. For a more recent summary of some new ideas emerging in post-neo-Darwinian thought, see Wieser, W. (1997) "A Major Transition in Darwinism," Trends in Ecology and Evolution 12:367-70.

      90
See, for example, the numerous contributors to Barlow, C. (1994) Evolution Extended: Biological Debates on the Meaning of Life (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press).

      91
Wilson, E.O. (1978) On Human Nature, p. 201 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press).

      92
von Bertalanffy, L. (1969) "Chance or Law," in A. Koestler and R. M. Smithies, eds., Beyond Reductionism (London: Hutchinson); Lewontin, R., and S. J. Gould (1979) "The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 205:581-98; Hamilton, M. (1984) "Revising Evolutionary Narratives: A Consideration of Evolutionary Assumptions About Sexual Selection and Competition for Mates," American Anthropologist 86:65162; Levins, R., and R. C. Lewontin (1985) The Dialectical Biologist (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press); Rowell, T. (1979) "How Would We Know If Social Organization Were Not Adaptive?" in I. Bernstein and E. Smith, eds., Primate Ecology and Human Origins, pp. 1-22 (New York: Garland). See also the discussion in Ho et al., "A New Paradigm for Evolution," and in Ho and Saunders, Beyond Neo-Darwinism.

      93
May, R. (1989) "The Chaotic Rhythms of Life," New Scientist 124(1691):37-41; Ford quote in Gleick, J. (1987) Chaos: Making a New Science, p. 314 (New York: Viking); Ferriere, R., and G. A. Fox (1995) "Chaos and Evolution," Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10:480-85; Robertson, R., and A. Combs, eds., (1995) Chaos Theory in Psychology and the Life Sciences (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates); Degn, H., A. V. Holden, and L. F. Olsen, eds., (1987) Chaos in Biological Systems (New York: Plenum Press); see also Abraham, R. (1994) Chaos, Gaia, Eros: A Chaos Pioneer Uncovers the Three Great Streams of History (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco).

      94
Alados, C. L., J. M. Escos, and J. M. Emlen (1996) "Fractal Structure of Sequential Behavior Patterns: An Indicator of Stress," Animal Behavior 51:437-43; Cole, B. J. (1995) "Fractal Time in Animal Behavior: The Movement Activity of Drosophila," Animal Behavior 50:1317-24; Erlandsson, J., and V. Kostylev (1995) "Trail Following, Speed, and Fractal Dimension of Movement in a Marine Prosobranch, Littorina littorea, During a Mating and a Non-Mating Season," Marine Biology 122:87-94; Sole, R. V., O. Miramontes, and B. C. Goodwin (1993) "Oscillations and Chaos in Ant Societies," ]ournal of Theoretical Biology 161:343-57; Fourcassie, V., D. Coughlin, and J. F. A. Traniello (1992) "Fractal Analysis of Search Behavior in Ants," Naturwissenschaften 79:87-89; Camazine, S. (1991) "Self-Organizing Pattern Formation on the Combs of Honey Bee Colonies," Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 28:61-76; Cole, B. J. (1991) "Is Animal Behavior Chaotic? Evidence from the Activity of Ants," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 244:253-59.

      95
Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science; Botkin, D. B. (1990) Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the Twenty-first Century (New York: Oxford University Press).

      96
Savalli, U. M. (1995) "The Evolution of Bird Coloration and Plumage Elaboration: A Review of Hypotheses," in D. M. Power, ed., Current Ornithology, vol. 12, pp. 141-90 (New York: Plenum Press).

      97
For a promising direction of research in this regard, see the proposal that a wide range of animal coat patterns may be generable from a single, simple mathematical equation (based on the work of Alan Turing): Murray, J. D. (1988) "How the Leopard Gets Its Spots," Scientific American 258(3):80-87.

      98
Goerner, S. (1995) "Chaos, Evolution, and Deep Ecology," in Robertson and Combs, Chaos Theory in Psychology and the Life Sciences, pp. 17-38; Worster, "The Ecology of Chaos and Harmony," p. 14; Haldane, J. B. S. (1928) Possible Worlds and Other Papers, p. 298 (New York: Harper & Brothers).

      99
Goerner, "Chaos, Evolution, and Deep Ecology," p. 24.

      100
Lovelock, J. E. (1988) "The Earth as a Living Organism," in E. O. Wilson, ed., BioDiversity, pp. 486-489 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press).

      101
Lovelock, J. E. (1979) Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth (Oxford: Oxford University Press); Margulis, L., and D. Sagan (1986) Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Microbial Evolution (New York: Summit Books); Bunyard, P., and E. Goldsmith, eds., (1988) Gaia: The Thesis, the Mechanisms, and the Implications, Proceedings of the First Annual Camelford Conference on the Implications of the Gaia Hypothesis (Camelford: Wadebridge Ecological Centre); Lovelock, J. E. (1988) The Ages of Gaia: A Biography of Our Living Earth (New York: W. W. Norton and Company); Bunyard and Goldsmith, Gaia and Evolution; Schneider, S. H., and P. J. Boston, eds., (1991) Scientists on Gaia, Proceedings of the American Geophysical Union's Annual Chapman Conference (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press); Williams, G. R. (1996) The Molecular Biology of Gaia (New York: Columbia University Press).

      102
Lambert, D., and R. Newcomb (1989) "Gaia, Organisms, and a Structuralist View of Nature," in Bunyard and Goldsmith, Gaia and Evolution, pp. 75-76.

      103
Lovelock, "The Earth as a Living Organism," p. 488.

      104
Tilman, D., and J. A. Downing (1994) "Biodiversity and Stability in Grasslands," Nature 367:363-65.

      105
Technically, this group comprises 13 distinct families of birds, combined into a higher-level grouping (or "suborder") known as the Charadrii. For information on the heterosexual mating systems in these families, see del Hoyo, J., A. Elliott, and J. Sargatal, eds., (1996) Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks, pp. 276-555 (Barcelona: Lynx Edicions); Paton, P. W. C. (1995) "Breeding Biology of Snowy Plovers at Great Salt Lake, Utah," Wilson Bulletin 107:275-88; Nethersole-Thompson, D., and M. Nethersole-Thompson (1986) Waders: Their Breeding, Haunts, and Watchers (Calton: T. and A. D. Poyser); Pitelka, F. A., R. T. Holmes, and S. F. MacLean Jr. (1974) "Ecology and Evolution of Social Organization in Arctic Sandpipers," Arnerican Zoologist 14:185-204. For details of species involving homosexual activity, see the profiles and references in part 2.
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      106
Carranza, J., S. J. Hidalgo de Trucios, and V. Ena (1989) "Mating System Flexibility in the Great Bustard: A Comparative Study," Bird Study 36:192-98. For further discussion of the possible benefits provided by behavioral plasticity, and variable sexual behaviors as a response to environmental or social variability, see Komers, P. E. (1997) "Behavioral Plasticity in Variable Environments," Canadian Journal of Zoology 75:161 — 69; Carroll, S. P., and P. S. Corneli (1995) "Divergence in Male Mating Tactics Between Two Populations of the Soapberry Bug: II. Genetic Change and the Evolution of a Plastic Reaction Norm in a Variable Social Environment," Behavioral Ecology 6:46-56; Rodd, F. H., and M. B. Sokolowski (1995) "Complex Origins of Variation in the Sexual Behavior of Male Trinidadian Guppies, Poecilia reticulata: Interactions Between Social Environment, Heredity, Body Size, and Age," Animal Behavior 49:1139-59. For an analysis of nonbreeding as an adaptive response to environmental variability, see, for example, Aebischer and Wanless 1992 (Shag).

      107
Golden Plover (Nethersole-Thompson and Nethersole-Thompson 1961:207-8 [on the possibility that "disruption" of heterosexual pairing in related species of plovers is due to late snow-melts, see Johnson, O. W., P. M. Johnson, P. L. Bruner, A. E. Bruner, R. J. Kienholz, and P. A. Brusseau (1997) "Male-Biased Breeding Ground Fidelity and Longevity in American Golden-Plovers," Wilson Bulletin 109:348-351]); Grizzly Bear (Craighead et al. 1995:216-17; J. W. Craighead, personal communication); Ostrich (Sauer 1972:717); Ring-billed and California Gulls (Conover et al. 1979); Rhesus Macaque (Fairbanks et al. 1977:247-48); Stumptail Macaque and other primates (Bernstein 1980:32; Vasey, "Homosexual Behavior in Primates," pp. 193-94). See also Hand (1985) for the suggestion that environmental "stresses" may call forth "plastic" social and sexual responses (such as homosexual pairing) in Laughing Gulls and other species. As noted in chapter 4, the occasional association of homosexuality with "unusual" ecological (or other) conditions is typically interpreted by scientists in a negative way, as evidence of a "disturbed" biological or social order rather than of a flexible response to (or synergy with) ongoing environmental flux. Moreover, the evidence for many of these cases — while intriguing — is anecdotal at best, and more systematic investigation will be necessary before any conclusions or even further speculations can be put forward in this regard.

      108
Japanese Macaque (Eaton 1978:55-56). See also Vasey's ("Homosexual Behavior in Primates," p. 196) suggestion that homosexuality may not be adaptive itself, but may represent a neutral behavioral "by-product" of some other trait that is adaptive, such as behavioral plasticity. For more on cultural and protocultural phenomena in animals, see chapter 2.

      109
Bataille, G. (1991) The Accursed Share, vol. 1, p. 33 (New York: Zone Books).

      110
Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science, pp. 4, 221, 306.

      111
Wilson, Diversity of Life, pp. 201, 210.

      112
Catchpole, C. K., and P. J. B. Slater (1995) Bird Song: Themes and Variations, pp. 187, 189 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

      113
Eberhard, W. G. (1996) Female Control: Sexual Selection by Cryptic Female Choice, pp. 55, 81 (Princeton: Princeton University Press); Eberhard, W. G. (1985) Sexual Selection and Animal Genitalia, p. 17 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press).

      114
Weldon, P. J., and G. M. Burghardt (1984) "Deception Divergence and Sexual Selection," Zeitschrift fur Tierpsychologie 65:89-102.

      115
Bataille, Accursed Share.

      116
For example, it is often erroneously thought that indigenous "subsistence" cultures are characterized by a scarcity of resources and an arduous, even desperate, struggle for survival, in contrast to modern industrial societies that have an abundance of resources and ample leisure time — when in fact the actual circumstances are usually reversed. Industrial society is essentially a system of enforced scarcity, in which basic necessities such as housing, food, and shelter are denied to the vast majority of people except in exchange for labor that occupies 40-60 hours a week of an adult's time. In contrast, detailed studies of the economies of a number of hunter-gatherer societies (including those living in the most "arduous" of environments such as the deserts of southern Africa) have revealed a "workweek" of only 15-25 hours for all adults (not just a privileged few). So abundant are the basic resources, minimal the material needs, and equitable the forms of social organization (which make resources freely available to all) that the remainder of people's time in such societies is occupied by "leisure activities." For further discussion, see Sahlins, M. (1972) Stone Age Economics (Chicago: Aldine Publishing); Lee, R. B. (1979) The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Mander, "Lessons in Stone-Age Economics," chapter 14 in In the Absence of the Sacred.

      117
cummings, e. e. (1963) Complete Poems 1913-1962, p. 749 (New York and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich).

      118
For more on the "problem" of sexual reproduction, see Dunbrack, R. L., C. Coffin, and R. Howe (1995) "The Cost of Males and the Paradox of Sex: An Experimental Investigation of the Short-Term Competitive Advantages of Evolution in Sexual Populations," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 262:45-49; Collins, R. J. (1994) "Artificial Evolution and the Paradox of Sex," in R. Parton, ed., Computing With Biological Metaphors, pp. 244-63 (London: Chapman & Hall); Slater, P. J. B., and T. R. Halliday, eds., (1994) Behavior and Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Michod, R. E., and B. R. Levin, eds., (1987) The Evolution of Sex: An Examination of Current Ideas (Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates); Alexander, R. D., and D. W. Tinkle (1981) Natural Selection and Social Behavior: Recent Research and New Theory (New York: Chiron Press); Daly, M. (1978) "The Cost of Mating," American Naturalist 112:771-74.
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      119
In fact, a number of zoologists have independently characterized homosexual (and alternate heterosexual) activities as "energetically expensive," "wasteful," "inefficient," or "excessive." See, for example, Fry et al. (1987:40) on same-sex pairing in Western Gulls; Schlein et al. (1981:285) on homosexual courtship in Tsetse and House Flies; Moynihan (1990:17) on noncopulatory mounting in Blue-bellied Rollers; Thomas et al. (1979:135) on the "wasting" of sperm during male homosexual interactions in Little Brown Bats; Moller (1987:207-8) on the "communal displays" (group courtship and promiscuous sexual activity) of House Sparrows; Ens (1992:72) on the "spectacular ceremonies" among nonbreeding Oystercatchers and Black-billed Magpies that involve the expenditure of "vast amounts of energy"; J. D. Paterson in Small (p. 92), on the "excessive" nonreproductive heterosexual activity of female primates that entails considerable "inefficiency" and "energy wastage" (Small, M. F. [1988] "Female Primate Sexual Behavior and Conception: Are There Really Sperm to Spare?" Current Anthropology 29:81-100); and Miller et al. (1996:468) on the "excess" sexual selection involved in the violent, often nonreproductive heterosexual matings between different species of fur seals. For an early characterization of some animal behaviors being motivated by an "excess" of sexual (and other) drives, see Tinbergen, N. (1952) "'Derived' Activities: Their Causation, Biological Significance, Origin, and Emancipation During Evolution," especially pp. 15, 24, Quarterly Review of Biology 27:1 — 32. For an early, nonscientific theory of (male) homosexuality as the expression of natural "superabundance," "excess," and "prodigality," see Gide, A. (1925/1983) Corydon, especially pp. 41, 48, 68 (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux).

      120
von Hildebrand, M. (1988) "An Amazonian Tribe's View of Cosmology," in Bunyard and Goldsmith, Gaia: The Thesis, the Mechanisms, and the Implications, pp. 186-195.

      121
Bataille, Accursed Share, vol. 1, p. 28.

      122
Wilson, E. O., Diversity of Life, pp. 43, 350ff.

      123
Abraham, Chaos, Gaia, Eros, p. 63. For discussion of the possibility that fractal or chaotic patterns may underlie some Native American and New Guinean cultures, see Butz, M. R., E. Duran, and B. R. Tong (1995) "Cross-Cultural Chaos," in Robertson and Combs, Chaos Theory in Psychology and the Life Sciences, pp. 319-30; Wagner, R. (1991) "The Fractal Person," in Godelier and Strathern, Big Men and Great Men, pp. 159-73.

      124
See, for example, Ehrlich, P. R. (1988) "The Loss of Diversity: Causes and Consequences," in Wilson, Bio Diversity, pp. 21-27; Takacs, D. (1996) The Idea of Biodiversity: Philosophies of Paradise, pp. 254-70 (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press); Wilson, On Human Nature. For a recent overview of the "spiritualization" of science, and the controversy it has engendered, see Easterbrook, G. (1997) "Science and God: A Warming Trend?" Science 277:890-93.

      125
Nelson, R. (1993) "Searching for the Lost Arrow: Physical and Spiritual Ecology in the Hunter's World," in Kellert and Wilson, The Biophilia Hypothesis, pp. 202-28; Nabham and St. Antoine, "The Loss of Floral and Faunal Story;" Diamond, J. (1993) "New Guineans and Their Natural World," in Kellert and Wilson, The Biophilia Hypothesis, pp. 251-71.

      126
Chadwick 1983:15 (Mountain Goat); Grumbie, R. E. (1992) Ghost Bears: Exploring the Biodiversity Crisis, pp. 69-71 (Washington, D.C.: Island Press); Soule, M. E. (1988) "Mind in the Biosphere; Mind of the Biosphere," in Wilson, Bio Diversity pp. 465-69.

      127
Goldsmith, E. (1989) "Gaia and Evolution," in Bunyard and Goldsmith, Gaia and Evolution, p. 8; Bunyard, P. (1988) "Gaia: Its Implications for Industrialized Society," in Bunyard and Goldsmith, Gaia: The Thesis, the Mechanisms, and the Implications, pp. 218-20.

      128
LaPena, F. (1987) The World Is a Gift (San Francisco: Limestone Press); see also Theodoratus, D. J., and F. LaPena (1992) "Wintu Sacred Geography," in L. J. Bean, ed., California Indian Shamanism, pp. 211-25 (Menlo Park, Calif: Ballena Press).

      129
Littlebird, L. (1988) "Cold Water Spirit," in Wilson, BioDiversity, pp. 476-80.

      130
Miller, "People, Berdaches, and Left-Handed Bears," pp. 278-80; Lange, C. H. (1959) Cochiti: A New Mexico Pueblo, Past and Present, pp. 135, 256 (Austin: University of Texas Press). On the kokwimu or two-spirit, see Gutierrez, R. A. (1991) When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846, pp. 33-35 (Stanford: Stanford University Press); Parsons, E. C. (1923) "Laguna Genealogies," p. 166, Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 19:133-292; Parsons, E. C. (1918) "Notes on Acoma and Laguna," pp. 181-82, American Anthropologist 20:162-86.

      131
Although the exact species is not named in Littlebird's story, it is possible to identify it with a fair degree of certainty based on a number of characteristics mentioned in the story, including its appearance (it has dark gray lines running down a green back); habits (it lifts its chest up and down rhythmically while moving its throat, is a swift runner, frequents dry and dusty areas, and seeks shelter under branches of tumbleweed); and location (west-central New Mexico). Herpetologist Donald Miles has confirmed (personal communication) that this is most likely a species of Whiptail Lizard, probably the Desert Grassland Whiptail (Cnemidophorus uniparens). For parthenogenesis and homosexual copulation in this and other Whiptail Lizards, see the references for these species in the appendix.

      132
Anguksuar (Richard LaFortune) (1997) "A Postcolonial Colonial Perspective on Western (Mis)Conceptions of the Cosmos and the Restoration of Indigenous Taxonomies," p. 219, in Jacobs et al., Two-Spirit People, pp. 217-22.

      133
Barlow, Evolution Extended, pp. 292-93, 298, 300.

      134
Harjo, J. (1988) "The Woman Hanging from the Thirteenth Floor Window," in C. Morse and J. Larkin, eds., Gay & Lesbian Poetry in Our Time, pp. 179-81 (New York: St. Martin's Press); Harjo, J. (1990) In Mad Love and War (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press); Harjo, J. (1994) The Woman Who Fell from the Sky (New York: W. W. Norton and Company); Harjo, J. (1996) The Spiral of Memory: Interviews (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press), pp. 28, 57, 68, 108, 115-17, 126, 129; Randall, M. (1990) "Nothing to Lose," Women's Review of Books 7:17-18.
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      135
Geist, V. (1996) Buffalo Nation: History and Legend of the North American Bison, p. 55 (Stillwater, Minn.: Voyageur Press). The picture shows a three-year-old male mounting another three-year-old male; the sex and age of the mountee can be discerned from the shape and size of its horns and head, and the presence of a prominent preputial (penis) tuft (D. F. Lott, personal communication).

      136
Brant, B. (1994) "Anodynes and Amulets," in Brant, Writing as Witness, pp. 25-34; Shaw, C. (1995) "A Theft of Spirit?" New Age Journal (July/August 1995):84-92.

      137
Sorum, A. (1984) "Growth and Decay: Bedamini Notions of Sexuality," in Herdt, Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 318-36.

      138
Schlesier, The Wolves of Heaven, pp. 13-14, 66-67, 190.

      139
Nataf, Z. I. (1996) Lesbians Talk Transgender, p.55 (London: Scarlet Press); with quotations from Smith, S. A. (1993) "Morphing, Materialism, and the Marketing of Xenogenesis," Genders 18:67-86.

      140
cummings, e. e. Complete Poems, p. 809.

      141
Monarch Butterfly (Leong et al. 1995; Leong 1995; Urquhart 1987; Tilden 1981; Rothschild 1978; Malcolm, S. B., and M. P. Zalucki, eds., [1993] Biology and Conservation of the Monarch Butterfly, Science Series no. 38 [Los Angeles: Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County]). ).

      142
Bey, H. (1991) T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism, p. 137 (New York: Autonomedia).

      143
The image of locating a conceptual position on the trajectory between distinct but related "points" is borrowed from Hakim Bey (Immediatism, p. 32).

      144
MacNeice, L. (1966) "Snow," in Collected Poems (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

      145
Bey, T.A.Z., pp. 23, 55.
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