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Chapter 2. Humanistic Animals, Animalistic Humans
1
Names for individual animals in each species, and the activities they engaged in, are from the following sources: Gorillas (Yamagiwa 1987a, Stewart 1977); Bottlenose Dolphins (Tavolga 1966); West Indian Manatees (Hartman 1971); Siamangs (Fox 1977); Bonobos (Idani 1991); Crested Black Macaques (Poirier 1964); Rhesus Macaques (Reinhardt et al. 1986); Japanese Macaques (Sugiyama 1960); Crab-eating Macaques (Hamilton 1914); Asiatic Mouflons (Pfeffer 1967); Grizzly Bears (Craighead 1979); Long-eared Hedgehogs (Poduschka 1981); Greylag Geese (Lorenz 1991); White-handed Gibbons (Edwards and Todd 1991); Orangutans (Rijksen 1978).
2
For cross-cultural and other surveys of the wide variety of human homosexualities, see Ford, C. S., and F. A. Beach (1951) Patterns of Sexual Behavior (New York: Harper and Row); Bell, A. P., and M. S. Weinberg (1978) Homosexualities: A Study of Diversity Among Men and Women (New York: Simon and Schuster); Blackwood, E., ed., (1986) The Many Faces of Homosexuality: Anthropological Approaches to Homosexual Behavior (New York: Harrington Park Press); Greenberg, D. F. (1988) The Construction of Homosexuality (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press); Murray, S.O.,ed., (1992) Oceanic Homosexualitites (New York: Garland); Plummer, K., ed., (1992) Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experience (London: Routledge); Murray, S. O. (1995) Latin American Homosexualities (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press); Murray, S., and W. Roscoe (1997) Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature (New York: New York University Press).
3
Kangaroos: Dagg, A. I. (1984) "Homosexual Behavior and Female-Male Mounting in Mammals — a First Survey," p. 179, Mammal Review 14:155-85. Bighorn Sheep: Weinrich, J. D. (1987) Sexual Landscapes, p. 294 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons). Bottlenose Dolphins (Caldwell and Caldwell 1977:804).
4
For some discussion of the parameters, complexities, and variations found in prison homosexuality (including male "pairing" as opposed to "rape"), see Donaldson, S. (1993) "A Million lockers, Punks, and Queens: Sex Among American Male Prisoners and Its Implications for Concepts of Sexual Orientation," lecture delivered at the Columbia University Seminar on Homosexualities; Wooden, W. S., and J. Parker (1982) Men Behind Bars: Sexual Exploitation in Prison (New York: Plenum). For discussion of similar factors in other types of "situational" homosexuality (i.e., evidence for the nonmonolithic nature of sexual activity in all-male groups), see Williams, W. L. (1986) "Seafarers, Cowboys, and Indians: Male Marriage in Fringe Societies on the Anglo-American Frontier," chapter 8 in The Spirit and the Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture, pp. 152-74 (Boston: Beacon Press).
5
Donaldson, S., and W. R. Dynes (1990) "Typology of Homosexuality," in W. R. Dynes, ed., Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, vol. 2, pp. 1332-37 (New York and London: Garland). Donaldson and Dynes's typology uses three main axes, representing sexual orientation, gender expression, and temporal or chronological patterning. This triaxial schema has been expanded here to include a number of other axes.
6
For discussion of "axes" not specifically considered here, such as gendered homosexual interactions and the complex manifestation of gender roles in same-sex contexts, see chapter 4.
7
Weinrich, J. D. (1982) "Is Homosexuality Biologically Natural?" in W. Paul, J. D. Weinrich, J. C. Gonsiorek, and M. E. Hotveldt, eds., Homosexuality: Social, Psychological, and Biological Issues, pp. 197-211 (Beverly Hills, Calif.: SAGE Publications).
8
Gadpaille, W. J. (1980) "Cross-Species and Cross-Cultural Contributions to Understanding Homosexual Activity," Archives of General Psychiatry 37:349-56; Dagg, "Homosexual Behavior and Female-Male Mounting in Mammals"; Vasey, P. L. (1995) "Homosexual Behavior in Primates: A Review of Evidence and Theory," International Journal of Primatology 16:173-204.
9
This does not include domesticated species, in which the evidence for exclusive homosexuality is sometimes even more conclusive, as in the recent behavioral and physiological studies of domesticated sheep; see Adler, T. (1996) "Animals' Fancies (Why Members of Some Species Prefer Their Own Sex," Science News 151:8-9; Resko et al. 1996; Perkins et al. 1992, 1995. The question of homosexual orientation or "preference" also ties in to the common misconception that animal homosexuality is largely a matter of "necessity" or "last resort," i.e., a response to the absence or unavailability of the opposite sex. This issue will be addressed more fully in chapter 4.
10
Silver Gull (Mills 1991); Greylag Goose (Huber and Martys 1993); Humboldt Penguin (Scholten 1992 and personal communication). In addition, a pair-bond between (captive) male Yellow-backed Lories has been documented as lasting more than 14 years (Low 1977:134), although (unlike the other species) this occurred in the absence of birds of the opposite sex.
11
Galah (Rogers and McCulloch 1981); Common Gull (Riddiford 1995); Black-headed Gull (van Rhijn and Groothuis 1985, 1987); Great Cormorant (Fukuda 1992); Bicolored Antbird (Willis 1967, 1972); Black Swan (Braithwaite 1981); Ring-billed Gull (Kovacs and Ryder 1981); Western Gull (Hunt and Hunt 1977); Hooded Warbler (Niven 1993). See also Clarke (1982:71) for documentation of a pair-bond between captive male White-fronted Amazon Parrots that lasted for at least two years.
12
Bottlenose Dolphin (Wells 1991, 1995; Wells et al. 1987). Another possible example is male Cheetahs, who form life-long pair-bonds or "coalitions" with each other. Although many such individuals mate with females, and sexual activity specifically between male pair-members has only recently been verified in captivity (Ruiz-Miranda et al. 1998), it is likely that at least some paired males have few if any heterosexual contacts for significant portions of their lives (especially in view of the fact that opposite-sex mating opportunities for such males are often reduced [Caro 1994:252, 304]).
13
Similarities and differences between homosexual and heterosexual patterns are discussed in more detail in the following section "Sexual Virtuosos."
14
Kleiman, D. G. (1977) "Monogamy in Mammals," Quarterly Review of Biology 52:39-69; Clutton-Brock, T. G. (1989) "Mammalian Mating Systems," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 235:339-72. In most of these pair-forming mammals homosexuality has not been reported; however, same-sex activity does occur among Gibbons, Rufous-naped Tamarins, and Wolves, but not between animals that are bonded to each other was mates. In Gibbons, homosexual interactions are incestuous — between father and son(s). In an oblique sense, then, this pattern of homosexuality involves a sort of "monogamy," in that sexual activity is not sought outside of the primary relationship or family unit. Interestingly, Gibbons do sometimes seek promiscuous copulations with partners other than their mate — but all such cases reported so far involve heterosexual, rather than homosexual, infidelities (see, for example, Palombit 1994a,b).
15
Gorilla (Robbins 1995:29, 30, 38); Hanuman Langur (Rajpurohit et al. 1995:292).
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16
Of course, it has often been claimed that homosexuality in such contexts is strictly "situational" or "by default," i.e., due to the absence of females. This is a great oversimplification, assuming as it does that males are necessarily "forced" into living in same-sex groups and engaging in homosexual activities; for further discussion and evidence against this interpretation, see chapter 5. Moreover, homosexual behavior "by default" is still homosexual behavior. If the "motivation" or desire of participants is to be factored in so as to distinguish "genuine" homosexuality, then the same must be done for opposite-sex interactions. The fact is that heterosexual behavior in many contexts is also "situational," not actively sought out by one or both partners, or even overtly resisted, yet it still falls under the umbrella of "heterosexuality" (see chapters 4 and 5 for further discussion and exemplification).
17
Mountain Zebra (Rasa and Lloyd 1994:172); American Bison (Komers et al. 1992:197, 201).
18
Nilgiri Langur (Hohmann 1989:445-47); Ruff (van Rhijn 1991; Hogan-Warburg 1966); White-handed Gibbon (Edwards and Todd 1991); Red Fox (Macdonald 1980:137; Schantz 1984:200; Storm and Montgomery 1975:239).
19
For further examples of these various forms of sequential bisexuality, consult the index. Most, if not all, of these patterns are also attested in human bisexualities; for an example of seasonal bisexuality (one of the less well known patterns), see the description of a medieval Persian practice in which men had female partners in winter and male ones in the summer (Murray and Roscoe, Islamic Homosexualities, p. 139).
20
Kinsey, A. C., W. B. Pomeroy, and C. E. Martin (1948) Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, pp. 638-41 (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders).
21
Calculations are based on data in the following sources: Bonobo (Idani 1991:90-91 [tables 5-6]); Red Deer (Hall 1983:278 [table 2]); Bonnet Macaque (Sugiyama 1971:259-60 [tables 8-9]); Pig-tailed Macaque (Tokuda et al. 1968:288, 290 [tables 3,5]); Kob (Buechner and Schloeth 1965:219 [table 2]).
22
R. Wrangham, quoted in Bull, C. (1997) "Monkey Love," The Advocate, June 10, 735:58. This is but one example of the often misleading statements about animal homosexuality that are perpetuated by both scientists and the popular press. See chapter 3 for further discussion.
23
Females had an average of 5.2 different female partners and 4.1 male partners and ranged 4-9 female partners (out of a pool of 10) and 1-9 male partners (out of a pool of 10) (Idani 1991:91). Of course, all of these figures represent only a relatively short "snapshot" of Bonobo behavior (covering three months), but it is likely that longer-term or lifetime patterns exhibit a comparable spectrum of variation. Because female Bonobos are neither exclusively heterosexual nor exclusively homosexual, de Waal (1997:192) advocates use of the term pansexual to descibe their sexual orientation. This characterization is as appropriate as bisexual as long as it is understood that individuals exhibit a range of same-sex versus opposite-sex interactions (i.e., there are many gradations of "pansexuality" or "bisexuality" in this species).
24
Of course, many other factors besides sexual "preference" are involved in the choice of mates, especially with regard to the availability and specific characteristics of partners. The fact that only some animals ever engage in homosexual or heterosexual activity, however, is an important indication that differences in sexual orientation probably also exist at an individual level. For further discussion of the role that partner availability may play in the occurrence of homosexual (and heterosexual) activity, see chapter 4.
25
Silver Gull: data for 131 females tracked in the wild over their entire lives, from Mills 1991:1525 (table 1); Black-headed Gull: data for 27 males in a captive population studied for seven years, based on van Rhijn and Groothuis 1985:161 (table 3); Japanese Macaque: averages for 46-58 females over two consecutive years in a semiwild population, from Wolfe 1979:526; Galah: based on pair-bonding data over six years pooled from two captive populations comprising 27 birds, from Rogers and McCulloch 1981.
26
Vasey, "Homosexual Behavior in Primates," p 197.
27
For explicit observations of the nonchalant responses of surrounding animals, including the heterosexual mates or parents of individuals involved in same-sex activity, see Common Chimpanzee (Kortlandt 1962:132); Gorilla (Harcourt et al. 1981:276); White-handed Gibbon (Edwards and Todd 1991:232-33); Japanese Macaque (Wolfe 1984; Vasey 1995:190); Killer Whale (Jacobsen 1986:152); Gray Whale (Darling 1978:55); Northern Fur Seal (Bartholomew 1959:168); African Buffalo (Mloszewski 1983:186); Lion (Chavan 1981:364); Rufous Rat Kangaroo (Johnson 1980:356); Dwarf Cavy (Rood 1970:442); Laughing Gull (Noble and Wurm 1943:205); Sage Grouse (Scott 1942:495). In the majority of cases where homosexual activities draw no response from surrounding animals, scientific observers simply make no comment about the behavior of the other animals. In one species, the Blue-bellied Roller, same-sex (and opposite-sex) "display" mounting is only performed when other birds are present to watch (but not intervene).
28
African Buffalo (Mloszewski 1983:186); Musk-ox (Tener 1965:75).
29
Other species in which harassment of heterosexual but not homosexual activity has been reported include Proboscis Monkeys (Yeager 1990a:224), Squirrel Monkeys (DuMond 1968:121-22; Baldwin and Baldwin 1981:304), Lechwe (Nefdt 1995), Wolves (Zimen 1976, 1981; Derix et al.1993), Red-necked Wallabies (Johnson 1989:275), Gray Squirrels (Koprowski 1992a:393; 1993:167-68), Kittiwakes (Chardine 1986), and King Penguins (Stonehouse 1960:32). In Hanuman Langurs, more than 83 percent of heterosexual copulations are harassed while harassment of homosexual ones only occurs occasionally (Sommer 1989a:208; Srivastava et al. 1991:497); for greater interruption of heterosexual mounts in Japanese Macaques, see Hanby 1974:840; in Moor Macaques, see Matsumura and Okamoto 1998:227-28. See also chapter 5 for further discussion of harassment of heterosexual matings.
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30
Bonobo (de Waal 1995:48, 1997:117, 120; Hashimoto 1997:12); Jackdaw (Roell 1978:29); Guianan Cock-of-the-Rock (Trail and Koutnik 1986:210-11). In a number of species (e.g., Rhesus and Crab-eating Macaques, Spotted Hyenas) a phenomeon known as scapegoating sometimes occurs, in which several individuals combine forces to attack another individual not directly involved in a dispute. Notably, individuals engaging in same-sex activity are not specifically targeted as scapegoats, and this behavior is not in fact generally related to sexual activity at all (Harcourt, A. H., and F. B. M. de Waal, eds., (1992) Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals, pp. 87, 91, 129, 240 [Oxford: Oxford University Press]).
31
Savanna Baboon (Marais 1922/1969); Red Deer (Darling 1937); Common Garter Snake (Mason and Crews 1985).
32
Greylag Goose (Lorenz 1979, 1991; Huber and Martys 1993; Schonfeld 1985); Black Swan (Braithwaite 1981).
33
For example, Japanese Macaques, Savanna Baboons, Kob, Mute Swans, Black-winged Stilts, Caspian Terns, Black-billed Magpies.
34
Greylag Goose (Huber and Martys 1993); Black Swan (Braithwaite 1981); Flamingo (King 1994, 1993a,b; E. Stevens, personal communication); Orange-fronted Parakeet (Hardy 1963:187, 1965:150); Laughing Gull (Noble and Wurm 1943:205; Hand 1981:138-39); Rose-ringed Parakeet (Goodwin 1983:87); Nilgiri Langur (Hohmann 1989:452); Lion (Cooper 1942:27-28); Rhesus Macaque (Fairbanks et al. 1977:247); Japanese Macaque (Vasey 1998); Common Chimpanzee (de Waal 1982:64-66); Livingstone's Fruit Bat (Courts 1996:27); Savanna Baboon (Marais 1922/1969:205-6). Homosexual pairs in the domesticated Bengalese Finch also attack other birds (Masatomi 1959). Additionally, in a number of mammals (e.g., Common Chimpanzees, Bonnet Macaques, Savanna Baboons, Bottlenose and Atlantic Spotted Dolphins, Cheetahs), paired "coalitions" or "alliances" of males that "solidify" their partnership through overt or ritualized sexual, affectionate, and bonding behaviors often cooperate in challenging and attacking other individuals; a similar phenomenon ocurs in homosexually bonded female Oystercatchers that are part of bisexual trios.
35
Brown Capuchin (Linn et al. 1995:50); Rufous Rat Kangaroo (Ganslosser and Fuchs 1988:311); Sage Grouse (Patterson 1952:155-56); Gorilla (Harcourt et al. 1981:276; Fisher and Nadler 1978:660-61); Bonobo (de Waal 1997:114, 130); Canada Goose (Allen 1934:197-98); Wapiti (Franklin and Lieb 1979:188-89); Japanese Macaque (Vasey 1998); Rhesus Macaque (Akers and Conaway 1979:76); Jackdaw (Roell 1979:124-25). In Greenshanks, the female partner of a male involved in homosexual copulation made a threatening call during a same-sex interaction but did not interfere (Nethersole-Thompson 1951:109-10).
36
White-tailed Deer (Thomas et al. 1965). Another possible example of transgendered animals being harassed is found in the paketi (a New Zealand fish), in which Ayling (1982:255) claims that transvestite fish are attacked ("beat up") when their true sex is discovered; however, Jones (1980), the original source on which this account is based, does not in fact mention such behavior (Ayling, T. [1982] Sea Fishes of New Zealand [Auckland: Collins]; Jones, G. P. [1980] "Growth and Reproduction in the Protogynous Hermaphrodite Pseudolabrus celidotus [Pisces: Labridae] in New Zealand," Copeia 1980:660-75).
37
Manakadan, R. (1991) "A Flock of One-Legged Greenshanks Tringa nebularia," Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 88:452.
38
Ring-billed Gull (Kovacs and Ryder 1983; Fetterolf et al. 1984); Japanese Macaque (Wolfe 1986:272; Gouzoules and Goy 1983:41); Greylag Goose (Huber and Martys 1993:161-62); Mallard Duck (Schutz 1965). Heg and van Treuren (1998:689) also found that bisexual trios of Oystercatchers are just as common on optimal as suboptimal territories.
39
Weinrich, Sexual Landscapes, p. 308.
40
Bonobo (de Waal 1997:107); Bottlenose Dolphin (Wells et al. 1987:294); Orang-utan (Galdikas 1981:285, 297, 1995:172; Kaplan and Rogers 1994:82).
41
Undoubtedly other species will be discovered that also exhibit this full range of characteristics. Many of these features are already known to characterize Stumptail Macaque sexuality, for example, including hidden estrous cycles (cf. de Waal 1989:150), anal and oral intercourse, and pairlike "sexual friendships" or "preferred partners" (and much remains to be learned about this species in the wild). Similarly, Japanese Macaques have pair-bonded consortships, face-to-face sexual encounters, and "social class" differences in sexual/pairing activity (cf. Corradino 1990:360), while Gorillas have face-to-face copulation, bonding or "preferred partners," hidden estrous cycles (cf. Wolfe 1991:125), and oral sexual activities. Certain of these characteristics also occur individually in animal groups other than primates and cetaceans: a face-to-face mating position, for instance, is occasionally used by snow leopards, while Ruffs have a highly structured "class" system among males involving (among other features) differing sexual behaviors (Freeman, H. [1983] "Behavior in Adult Pairs of Captive Snow Leopards [Panthera uncia]," Zoo Biology 2:1-22). Another erroneous claim about human uniqueness is that no animal exhibits a type of homosexuality sometimes known as "(mutual) androphilia," an interaction involving two adult males neither of whom adopts a stereotypically "feminine" gender presentation or sexual behavior (on the supposed absence of this in animals, see Houser, W. [1990] "Animal Homosexuality," in W. R. Dynes, ed., Encyclopedia of Homosexuality, vol. 1, pp. 60-63 [New York and London: Garland]). In fact, exactly this sort of homosexuality occurs in Greylag Goose and Mallard Duck male pairs, as well as in a number of other species; see chapter 4 for further discussion of gender roles (or their absence) in homosexual interactions.
42
Weinrich, Sexual Landscapes, p. 305 (where this idea is formulated as the "technique puzzle" and characterized as "a disturbing generalization"); Masters, W.H., and V.E. Johnson (1979) Homosexuality in Perspective (Boston: Little, Brown).
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43
Likewise, the durations of homosexual as opposed to heterosexual acts (such as mounting) are usually comparable. In some species, however, homosexual interactions generally last longer (e.g., Gorillas, White-handed Gibbons, American Bison, West Indian Manatees), while in others heterosexual encounters typically last longer (e.g., Harbor Seals, Red Foxes, Humboldt Penguins, Long-tailed Hermit Hummingbirds). In many species homosexual interactions do exhibit greater variability or flexibility in terms of the role differentiation of partners (see chapter 4 for further discussion).
44
Bonobo (Kitamura 1989:53-57, 61; Kano 1992:187); Gorilla (Fischer and Nadler 1978:660-61; Yamagiwa 1987a:12-14, 1987b:37; Harcourt and Stewart 1978:611-12); Hanuman Langur (Weber and Vogel 1970:76; Srivastava et al. 1991:496-97).
45
Japanese Macaque (Hanby and Brown 1974:164; Hanby 1974:838-40).
46
Flamingo (C. E. King, personal communication).
47
The head-to-tail position does occur in interspecies homosexual interactions with Tucuxi Dolphins. Same-species versus cross-species differences in mounting position (independent of the sex of the partner) are also found in other cetaceans. Among Bottlenose Dolphins, for example, a belly-to-belly mating position is typical of same-species contacts, both homosexual and heterosexual (cf. McBride and Hebb 1948:115, among others), while a sideways, dorsoventral position occurs in interspecies encounters with Atlantic Spotted Dolphins of both sexes (Herzing and Johnson 1997:92, 96).
48
Anderson, S. (1993) "Stitchbirds Copulate Front to Front," Notornis 40:14; Tyrrell, E. Q. (1990) Hummingbirds of the Caribbean, pp. 114, 155 (New York: Crown Publishers); "Red-capped Plover, Charadrius ruficapillus ," in S. Marchant and P. J. Higgins, eds. (1993) Handbook of Australian, New Zealand, and Antarctic Birds, vol. 2, pp. 836-47 (Melbourne: Oxford University Press); Wilkinson, R., and T. R. Birkhead (1995) "Copulation Behavior in the Vasa Parrots Coracopsis vasa and C. nigra," Ibis 137:117-19; Kilham, L. (1983) Life History Studies of Woodpeckers of Eastern North America, pp. 49-50, 143, 160 (Cambridge, Mass.: Nuttall Ornithological Club); Southern, W. E. (1960) "Copulatory Behavior of the Red-headed Woodpecker," Auk 77:218-19.
49
Vasey, "Homosexual Behavior in Primates," p. 195.
50
For further details see the primate profiles in part 2, as well as the discussion of nonreproductive heterosexualities in chapter 5.
51
For discussion of cultural traditions in animals, including references to many specific cases, see Bonner, J. T. (1980) The Evolution of Culture in Animals (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press); Galef, B. G., Jr. (1995) "Why Behavior Patterns That Animals Learn Socially Are Locally Adaptive," Animal Behavior 49:1325-34; Lefebvre, L. (1995) "The Opening of Milk Bottles by Birds: Evidence for Accelerating Learning Rates, but Against the Wave-of-Advance Model of Cultural Transmission," Behavioral Processes 34:43-54; Menzel, E.W., Jr., ed. (1973) Precultural Primate Behavior (Symposia of the Fourth International Congress of Primatology, vol. 1) (Basel: S. Karger); Gould, J. L., and C. G. Gould (1994) The Animal Mind (New York: Scientific American Library). For an excellent survey of animal cultural traditions, see Mundinger, P. C. (1980) "Animal Cultures and a General Theory of Cultural Evolution," Ethology and Sociobiology 1:183-223.
52
Japanese Macaque (Itani 1959; Gouzoules and Goy 1983:47; Eaton 1978; Wolfe 1984:152); Stumptail Macaque (Chevalier-Skolnikoff 1976:512; Bertrand 1969:193-94); Savanna Baboon (Ransom 1981:139). In Hanuman Langurs, mounting between females may also have a cultural component, since it exhibits wide variability not only between individuals but also between geographic areas. It occurs frequently in some regions (e.g., Jodhpur, India), less frequently in others (e.g., Abu and Sariska in India), rarely in others (e.g., Sri Lanka), and not at all in still others (e.g., some parts of Nepal) (Srivastava et al.1991:504-5 [table V]). Heterosexual courtship patterns in Common Chimpanzees also exhibit cultural variations (cf. Nishida 1997:394, among others).
53
Bonobo (Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1977; Savage-Rumbaugh and Wilkerson 1978; Savage and Bakeman 1978; Roth 1995; S. Savage-Rumbaugh, personal communication). Drawings, verbal descriptions, and "glosses" of the hand signals and their meanings in the accompanying illustration are based on these sources. For alternate descriptions of some of these gestures, as well as gestures used in nonsexual situations, see de Waal 1988:214-21.
54
Bonobo (Savage-Rumbaugh and Wilkerson 1978:334; Roth 1995:75, 88).
55
Bonobo (Savage-Rumbaugh et al. 1977:108).
56
Linguists studying the structure of American Sign Language, for example, have identified a continuum of iconicity in signs, ranging from transparent signs (quasi-mimetic gestures whose meaning is readily identifiable from their form, even to nonsigners) to translucent signs (gestures in which a connection between meaning and form can be discerned but not automatically identified without knowing the meaning of the sign) to opaque signs (gestures in which all form-meaning correspondences have been lost). According to these criteria, the Bonobo gestures would fall primarily in the transparent-translucent range. For further discussion see Klima, E.S., and U. Bellugi (1979) The Signs of Language, especially chapter 1, "Iconicity in Signs and Signing" (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).
57
This gestural system has only been observed in captivity, albeit in "untrained" Bonobos. Studies of wild Bonobos have so far revealed a less elaborate communicative repertoire associated with sexual interactions, although researchers have identified similar types of communicative exchanges prior to some episodes of sexual activity (e.g., Kitamura 1989:54-55; Enomoto 1990:473-75). It must also be remembered that many behaviors are easily missed in the field (especially given the particular difficulties of observing wild Bonobos; cf. de Waal 1997:12, 63-64, 70, 76-77); hence it is possible that more elaborate gestural repertoires do occur in wild Bonobos but have yet to be observed. For more on the issue of behaviors that are only observed in captivity as opposed to the wild, see chapter 4.
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58
Hewes, G. W. (1973) "Primate Communication and the Gestural Origin of Language," Current Anthropology 14:5-24; Hewes, G. W. (1976) "The Current Status of the Gestural Theory of Language Origin," in S. Harnad, H. Steklis, and J. Lancaster, eds., Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, vol. 280, pp. 482-504 (New York: New York Academy of Sciences).
59
Bonobo (Roth 1995:4-45).
60
Beck, B. B. (1980) Animal Tool Behavior: The Use and Manufacture of Tools by Animals (New York: Garland); Goodall 1986:545-48, 559 (Common Chimpanzee); van Lawick-Goodall, J., H. van Lawick, and C. Packer (1973) "Tool-Use in Free-living Baboons in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania," Nature 241:212-13; McGrew, W.C. (1992) Chimpanzee Material Culture: Implications for Human Evolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Berthelet, A., and J. Chavaillon, eds., (1993) The Use of Tools by Human and Nonhuman Primates (Oxford: Clarendon Press); Weinberg, S.M., and D.K. Candland (1981) "'Stone-Grooming' in Macaca fuscata," American Journal of Primatology 1:465-68.
61
Orang-utan (Rijksen 1978:262-63; Nadler 1982:241; Harrison 1961:61).
62
Common Chimpanzee (Bingham 1928:148-50; Kollar et al. 1968:456-57; Goodall 1986:559-60; McGrew, Chimpanzee Material Culture, p. 183); Bonobo (Takeshita and Walraven 1996:428; Walraven et al. 1993:28, 30; Becker, C. [1984] Orang-Utans und Bonobos im Spiel: Untersuchungen zum Spielverhalten von Menschenaffen [Orang-utans and Bonobos at Play: Investigations on the Play Behavior of Apes], pp. 149, 152, 193-94 [Munich: Profil-Verlag]). Female Japanese Macaques are also reported to use inanimate objects for masturbation (Rendall and Taylor 1991:321), although it is not clear whether this involves use of "tools" or simply rubbing of genitals against a surface (as is found in many other species). Masturbatory tool use is also occasionally reported for animals other than primates; see, for example, Shadle's description of male and female Porcupines holding sticks in their forepaws while straddling the object in order to stimulate their genitals (Shadle, A. R. [1946] "Copulation in the Porcupine," Journal of Wildlife Management 10:159-62; Shadle, A. R., M. Smelzer, and M. Metz [1946] "The Sex Reactions of Porcupines (Erethizon d. dorsaturn) Before and After Copulation," Journal of Mammalogy 27:116-21). Objects or "tools" are also sometimes employed by Common Chimpanzees and Bonobos during heterosexual courtship and solicitations (cf. McGrew, Chimpanzee Material Culture, pp. 82, 188; Nishida 1997:385, 394 [Common Chimpanzee]; de Waal 1997:120 [Bonobo]).
63
Bonnet Macaque (Sinha 1997). Sinha (1997:23) believes that this female was using the tools to "scratch" her vagina, possibly because of "some irritation," whose presence, however, was never confirmed. Sexual stimulation is also compatible with the observed behaviors (instead of, or along with, "scratching"), especially considering that masturbation without the use of tools occurs regularly in Bonnet Macaques of both sexes (cf. Makwana 1980:11; Kaufman and Rosenblum 1966:221; Rahaman and Parthasarathy 1969:155).
64
See, for example, (Rawson, P. (1973) Primitive Erotic Art, especially pp. 20, 71 (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons); Kinsey, A. C., W. B. Pomeroy, C. E. Martin, and P. H. Gebhard (1953) Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, p. 136 (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders). Examples of tools utilized for sexual stimulation of partners (rather than self-stimulation) have yet to be reported for any nonhuman species. For a recent discussion of the role of sexual pleasure in the evolution of tool use among both nonhuman primates and early humans, see Vasey, P. L. (1998) "Intimate Sexual Relations in Prehistory: Lessons from Japanese Macaques," World Archaeology 29:407-25.
65
For further discussion of these (and other) examples as well as cultural variation in the occurrence of incest and its taboos, see Leavitt, G. C. (1990) "Sociobiological Explanations of Incest Avoidance: A Critical Review of Evidential Claims," American Anthropologist 92:971-93; Arens, W. (1986) The Original Sin: Incest and Its Meaning (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press); Livingstone, F. B. (1980) "Cultural Causes of Genetic Change," in G. W. Barlow and J. Silverberg, eds., Sociobiology: Beyond Nature/Nurture? pp. 307-29, AAAS Selected Symposium, no. 35 (Boulder: Westview Press); Schneider, D. M. (1976) "The Meaning of Incest," Journal of the Polynesian Society 85:149-69.
66
For an overview of a variety of kinship restrictions on Melanesian homosexual relations, see Schwimmer, E. (1984) "Male Couples in New Guinea," pp. 276-77, in G. H. Herdt, ed., Ritualized Homosexuality in Melanesia, pp. 248-91 (Berkeley: University of California Press); Murray, S. O. (1992) "Age-Stratified Homosexuality: Introduction," pp. 10-12, in Murray, Oceanic Homosexualities, pp. 293-327. For more on New Guinean homosexualities, see chapter 6.
67
Leavitt, "Sociobiological Explanations," pp. 974-75; Livingstone, "Cultural Causes," p. 318. For arguments that in animals some forms of inbreeding (such as between cousins) may actually have beneficial genetic and social effects and are preferred in some species (e.g., Vervet monkeys, Japanese quail), see Moore and Ali 1984 (Bonnet Macaque); Bateson, P. (1982) "Preferences for Cousins in Japanese Quail," Nature 295:236-37; Shields, W. M. (1982) Philopatry, Inbreeding, and the Evolution of Sex (Albany: State University of New York Press); Cheney, D. M., and R. M. Seyfarth (1982) "Recognition of Individuals Within and Between Groups of Free-Ranging Vervet Monkeys," American Zoologist 22:519-30.
68
Japanese Macaque (Wolfe 1979; Chapais and Mignault 1991; Vasey 1996:543; Chapais et al. 1997); Hanuman Langur (Srivastava et al. 1991:509 [table II]; Sommer and Rajpurohit 1989:304, 310); Bonobo (Hashimoto et al. 1996:315-16). Bonobo mother-daughter homosexual relations occasionally occur (Thompson-Handler et al. 1984:355).
69
Savanna Baboon (Smuts and Watanabe 1990:167-70).
{682}
70
Berndt, R., and C. Berndt (1945) "A Preliminary Report of Field Work in the Ooldea Region, Western South Australia," pp. 245, 260-66, Oceania 15:239-75; Meggitt, M. J. (1962) Desert People: A Study of the Walbiri Aborigines of Central Australia, pp. 262-63. (Sydney: Angus and Robertson); Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1977) "Patterns of Greeting in New Guinea," pp. 221,226, in S.A. Wurm, ed., New Guinea Area Languages and Language Study, Vol. 3: Language, Culture, Society, and the Modern World, pp. 209-47, Pacific Linguistics Series C, no. 40 (Canberra: Australian National University Press). For more on ritualized homosexuality among the Bedamini and other New Guinean peoples, see chapter 6.
71
Interestingly, homosexual activity in another group of highly intelligent creatures — whales and dolphins — also has many of the hallmarks of cultural activity identified here. Same-sex activity varies considerably between individuals, populations, and time periods in a number of cetaceans. For example, sexual interactions between male Killer Whales appear to differ in frequency and occurrence depending on the geographic area (Rose 1992:7), while male pairs of Bottlenose Dolphins exhibit different characteristics in various populations (see chapter 5). In addition, "incest taboos" appear to be operative in most male Killer Whale homosexual interactions (Rose 1992:112), sexual activity in Bottlenose Dolphins sometimes has a ritualistic or "greeting" component (Ostman 1991:313), while Bottlenose Dolphins of both sexes have also been observed "masturbating" or stimulating their genitals using inanimate objects (Caldwell and Caldwell 1972:430).
72
Hamer, D., and P. Copeland (1994) The Science of Desire: The Search for the Gay Gene and the Biology of Behavior, p. 213 (New York: Simon and Schuster).
73
Ward, J. (1987) "The Nature of Heterosexuality," in G. E. Hanscombe and M. Humphries, eds., Heterosexuality, pp. 145-69. (London: GMP Publishers).
74
Weinrich, J. D. (1982) "Is Homosexuality Biologically Natural?" in W. Paul, J. D. Weinrich, J. C. Gonsiorek, and M. E. Hotvedt, eds., Homosexuality: Social, Psychological, and Biological Issues, pp. 197-208 (Beverly Hills, Calif: SAGE Publications). For an early discussion of animal homosexuality in relation to the question of "naturalness," see Gide, A. (1911/1950) Corydon (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Co.).
75
Weinrich, ibid.; Plant, R. (1986) The Pink Triangle: The Nazi War Against Homosexuals, pp. 27, 185 (New York: Henry Holt); Grau, G., ed., (1995) Hidden Holocaust? Gay and Lesbian Persecution in Germany 1933-45, p. 284 (London: Cassell); Mann, M. (1797/1866) The Female Review: Life of Deborah Sampson, the Female Soldier in the War of the Revolution, p. 225 (Boston: J. K. Wiggin & W. P. Lunt) [excerpts reprinted in Katz, J. (1976) Gay American History, pp. 212-214 (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell)]. Boswell, J. (1980) Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, p. 309 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
76
For a summary and overview of such experimental studies (e.g., involving hormones), see Mondimore, F. M. (1996) A Natural History of Homosexuaity, pp. 111-13, 129-30 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press). These studies, typically involving laboratory rats, also invariably overlook the fact that the homosexual behaviors "induced" by hormones and other experimental treatments occur spontaneously in the wild ancestors of the laboratory animals involved, e.g., (European) Brown Rats (cf. Barnett 1958). Concerning further pitfalls in extrapolating from laboratory animals, as well as a general discussion of the "nature versus nurture" controversy, see Byne, W. (1994) "The Biological Evidence Challenged," Scientific American 270(5):50 — 55; LeVay, S., and D. H. Hamer (1994) "Evidence for a Biological Influence in Male Homosexuality," Scientific American 270(5):44-49.
77
Weinrich, "Is Homosexuality Biologically Natural?" p. 207.
78
See chapter 5, as well as the animal profiles in part 2, for specific examples.
79
For explicit statements by gay-bashers to the effect that homosexuality is "not natural," see Comstock, G. D. (1991) Violence Against Lesbians and Gay Men, p. 74 (New York: Columbia University Press).
80
Middleton, S., and D. Liittschwager (1996) "Parting Shots?" Sierra 81(1):40-45.
81
For documentation of these activities, see the following sources: Ligon, J. D. (1970) "Behavior and Breeding Biology of the Red-cockaded Woodpecker," Auk 87:255-78; Lennartz, M. R., R.G. Hooper, and R. F. Harlow (1987) "Sociality and Cooperative Breeding of Red-cockaded Woodpeckers, Picoides borealis," Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 20:77-88; Walters, J. R., P. D. Doerr, and J. H. Carter III (1988) "The Cooperative Breeding System of the Red-cockaded Woodpecker," Ethology 78:275-305; Walters, J. R. (1990) "Red-cockaded Woodpeckers: A 'Primitive' Cooperative Breeder," in P. B. Stacey and W. D. Koenig, eds., Cooperative Breeding in Birds: Long-Term Studies of Ecology and Behavior, pp. 69-101 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press); Haig, S. M., J. R. Walters, and J. H. Plissner (1994) "Genetic Evidence for Monogamy in the Cooperatively Breeding Red-cockaded Woodpecker," Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 34:295-303; Rossell, C. R., Jr., and J. J. Britcher (1994) "Evidence of Plural Breeding by Red-cockaded Woodpeckers," Wilson Bulletin 106:557-59.
82
For a complete list of references, see the appendix. For an example of an anecdotal, nonscientific account, see O'Donoghue, B. P. (1996) My Lead Dog Was a Lesbian: Mushing Across Alaska in the Iditarod — the World's Most Grueling Race, p. 42 (New York: Vintage). Interestingly, a female dog that showed interest in both females and males is described in this book as "sexually confused" and willing to mount "any dog within reach" — some of the same subjective characterizations that appear in the scientific descriptions of bisexuality and homosexuality among wild animals (see chapters 3 and 4).
83
Ford and Beach, Patterns of Sexual Behavior, p. 142; Denniston, R. H. (1980) "Ambisexuality in Animals," p. 34, in J. Marmor, ed., Homosexual Behavior: A Modern Reappraisal, pp. 25-40 (New York: Basic Books).
84
Kelley, K. (1978) Playboy interview: Anita Bryant, Playboy, May 1978, p. 82. Quoted in Weinrich, "Is Homosexuality Biologically Natural?" p. 198.
85
Lillian Faderman, interviewed in the Seattle Gay News, October 21, 1994, p. 26. See also Faderman's mention of same-sex activities in her pet terriers in Faderman, L. (1998) "Setting Love Straight," The Advocate, February 17, 753:72.
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