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Subject Index
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
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A
Abandonment of eggs see Egg destruction
Abandonment of offspring see Abuse, neglect of offspring
Abortion, embryo reabsorption 205; mammals: primates 297, 322, 328, 333, 337; marine 369, 373; hoofed 381, 389, 396; other 439, 444, 459; see also Egg destruction
Abraham, Ralph 256
Abuse (heterosexual) see Harassment; Violence
Abuse, neglect of offspring (heterosexual) 92, 205; mammals: primates 297, 310, 322, 328, 333; marine 347, 358, 363-364, 369, 373, 376; hoofed 412, 416, 420; other 435, 439, 454, 457, 464; birds: waterfowl 490, 504, 508, 512, 516, 520, 527; shore 542-543, 538, 547, 550, 555, 559, 562, 564; perching 619; other 630, 646; see also Kidnapping
Adoption, foster-parenting, step-parenting (heterosexual) 80, 170, 171, 206-207; interspecies adoption 498, 512, 516, 535, 542, 554, 562, 582, 604; mammals: primates 291, 305, 310, 333; marine 364, 373; hoofed 420; other 420, 435, 439, 444; birds: waterfowl 482, 485-486, 489, 498, 508, 512, 516, 520; shore 535, 538, 542, 546-547, 550, 554-555, 559, 562, 564; perching 581-582, 585, 589, 596, 604, 609; other 624-625, 649; see also Kidnapping; Parasitism
Adoption (homosexual) see Sources of offspring
Affectionate behaviors (homosexual) see Embracing; Grooming; Kissing; Nuzzling; Play-fighting
Ahgook, Robert 243
Alloparenting, babysitting, helpers (heterosexual) 170-172, 206, 190, 212, 5n68; mammals: primates 294, 297, 305, 310, 328, 333; marine 347, 351, 364, 373, 376; hoofed 389, 408, 420, 423-424, 429-430; other 435, 439, 469, 475; birds: waterfowl 485, 494, 504, 520, 526-527; shore 532, 542; perching 581, 593, 596, 600-601; other 624, 630, 646, 648-649; see also Crèches
Alternative heterosexual pair-bonding see Divorce; Non-monogamous pair-bonds; Trios, quartets
Alternative heterosexual parenting see Adoption; Alloparenting; Crèches; Kidnapping; Parasitism; Single parenting
Anal stimulation, rump-rubbing (heterosexual) 61, 209, 273, 278, 287, 430, 453, 467
Anal stimulation, rump-rubbing (homosexual) 20, 61, 3n84; mammals: primates 270, 272, 276-277, 290, 313, 317, 321, 326; other 453, 467; see also Mounting; Penetration
Anguksuar (Richard LaFortune) 257
Aristotle 84
Babysitting see Alloparenting; Crèches Bataille, Georges 252-255, 256
B
Behavioral/sexual plasticity 45, 122, 250-251, 4n101, 6n107, 6n108
Behavioral transvestism see Transvestism
Beston, Henry 244
Bey, Hakim 244, 261, 262
Billing see Kissing
Biodiversity 249-252, 256
Biological Exuberance 215, 245, 253-255, 261-262
Birth control (heterosexual) see Abortion; Infanticide; Nonbreeders; Reproductive suppression; Siblicide; Vaginal plugs
Birth, heterosexual activity during see Pregnancy, birth
Bisexuality, latent or situational 53, 146, 155, 160; mammals 286, 300, 340, 471; birds 493-494, 546, 558, 613, 619, 624
Bisexuality, sequential; age-based 51; mammals 286, 314, 345, 350, 358, 363, 392, 415, 420, 426, 429, 443, 451, 463; birds 498, 504-505, 507, 512, 558, 568, 608, 619, 653; mate-switching 51; mammals 304; birds 482, 507, 526, 541, 554, 558, 564, 576, 589, 608, 629, 653; seasonal 50; mammals 354, 357, 362-363, 372, 385, 407-408, 463, 474; birds 493, 498; other 51; mammals: primates 278, 283, 286, 291, 296, 308; marine 345-346, 358, 363; hoofed 394, 395, 403-404, 420, 426, 429; other 443, 463, 471; birds: waterfowl 506, 512; shore 531, 558; perching 568, 571, 608; other 624, 653
Bisexuality, simultaneous; bisexual matings outside pairbond 51; mammals 309, 345, 434; waterfowl 481-482, 485, 493, 503, 504, 514-515, 526, 527; shore birds 534, 541, 546, 550, 554, 558, 561-562, 563-564; perching birds 581, 585, 599; other birds 629; bisexual trios/quartets 51; waterfowl 481-482, 483-484, 489, 493, 525; shore birds 541, 546, 558; perching birds 592, 599, 608; other birds 653; group sexual activity 51; mammals 273, 346, 375, 434, 438, 451; birds 502, 515, 523, 529, 561-562, 584, 638, 645; other 51, 178-179, 678n23; mammals: primates 273, 277, 282-283, 286, 290-291, 295, 300, 304-305, 309, 314, 318, 322, 327, 332; marine 345-346, 351, 363, 368, 372, 375; hoofed 381, 385, 388-389, 393-394, 395, 400, 408, 411, 415, 419-420, 423, 426, 429; other 434, 438, 443, 447, 451, 454, 456, 463, 466, 467, 475; birds: waterfowl 485, 498, 507, 510, 512, 520; shore 531, 534, 558, 561, 564; perching 568, 571, 574, 578-579, 599, 608, 613, 616, 619; other 629, 631, 633, 638, 642, 645, 648, 653; see also Pile-up mounts
Bisexual superiority see Explanations
Boswell, John 194, 214
Brant, Beth 218, 219
Breeding by homosexual/bisexual animals 26, 135, 140-141, 169-172, 174-182; mammals: primates 273, 277, 281, 291, 294, 296, 314, 327; marine 345, 368; hoofed 395, 399, 408; other 454; birds: waterfowl 493, 503, 504, 514-515, 519; shore 531, 534, 564; perching 581, 585; other 642; see also Parenting; Transgendered animals-breeding or mating by
Breeding rare, incomplete, non-yearly (heterosexual) 197; mammals: primates 283, 288, 291-292, 296; marine 345-346, 351, 355, 358, 368, 372, 376; hoofed 393, 412, 430; other 443; birds: waterfowl 485, 489, 527; shore 550; other 630; see also Infrequency of heterosexual mating
Bryant, Anita 82
Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc de 84, 85
Bunyard, Peter 256
Butler, Octavia E. 260
Byne, William 128
C
Cameron, Anne 218
Cannibalism 173, 205; mammals 278, 424, 435, 439, 444, 447, 464, 471; birds 516, 551, 555, 559, 562, 596, 601, 609, 634, 646
Capra, Fritjof 257
Caprio, F. S. 124
Captivity, homosexuality and see Explanations-pathology
Carroll, Lewis 18
Carse, James P. 214, 245
Cattet, Marc 234
Chadwick, Douglas 256
Chaos theory 247-248
Chimera see Intersexuality
Chrystos 219
Cleopatra 72
Clitoral penetration see Penetration
Clitoris 19, 69, 96, 202, 208, 210, 5n150, 5n152-153; mammals: primates 270, 287, 303, 308, 321, 327, 331, 336; marine 343, 346; hoofed 420, 428, 430; other 446-447
Cloacal contact see Penetration
Communal breeding groups see Explanations-helpers; Nonbreeders-helpers
Companionships (homosexual) 22; mammals: primates 273, 286, 295, 331; marine 351, 354, 372; hoofed 379, 384, 388, 411, 422, 428-429; other 433-434, 441-442, 450, 468, 474; birds; 512, 570, 592, 599, 618-619; see also Parenting; Trios, quartets
Competition for homosexual partners see Preference (homosexual)
Consortships see Partnerships
Copulatory plugs see Vaginal plugs
Counter-reproductive heterosexual strategies see Abortion; Abuse of offspring; Cannibalism; Egg destruction; Infanticide; Mortality, stress in breeders; Siblicide; Vaginal plugs
Courtship, other display behaviors (homosexual) 25-15, 17-18, 150; primates 271, 281, 304, 307-308, 331, 334; marine mammals 342, 345, 349-350, 361-362, 371-372, 376; hoofed mammals 379, 386, 387-388, 391-392, 394, 398-399, 402-403, 406-407, 408-409, 410-411, 419; other mammals 433, 450, 453-454, 467-458, 469, 470-471; waterfowl 480, 483-484, 488, 492-493, 497-498, 502, 506-507, 509-510, 511-512, 518-519, 522-523; shore birds 529-530, 533-534, 537, 557, 540-541, 549, 553, 560-561; perching birds 567-568, 569-570, 572-573, 575-576, 578, 595, 591-592, 596, 599-600, 601, 603, 606-607, 608, 609-610, 612-613, 614-615, 616, 617-618; other birds 622-623, 628-629, 631, 633, 634-635, 636-637, 639, 640-641, 648, 651-652, 654-655; see also Differences between homosexual and heterosexual behaviors; Lek; Vocalizations
Crèches, nursery groups 170-171, 206, 672n11; mammals 341, 369, 373, 385-386, 393, 430, 435; birds 485, 494, 526-527, 555, 564, 585-586, 624-625, 630, 639, 653-654
Cultural behavior, (homo)sexuality as 45, 64-76, 78, 79, 80, 2n71; individual and/or population differences 45, 65, 80, 182, 2n52; language 66-69, 271, 2n56-57; rituals 74-76; taboos 71-74; tool use 69-71, 2n62; see also: Ritualized interactions
Cummings, E. E. 212
Cunnilingus see Oral stimulation
D
Dagg, Anne Innis 46, 88
Darling, James 93
Daycare see Alloparenting; Crèches
Delayed implantation 201, 364, 368-369, 373, 444, 451
Differences between homosexual and heterosexual behaviors courtship 15, 63, 125; mammals 304, 307, 362-363, 391; birds 480, 537, 549, 557, 560-561, 567, 575-576, 591, 615, 618, 622-623, 652; pair-bonding (including same-sex pairing in species without opposite-sex pairing) 23, 48, 125-126; marine mammals 342, 344; hoofed mammals 379, 384, 388, 411, 422, 428; other mammals 433-434, 443, 450, 462, 468; birds 480-481, 570; parenting (including same-sex coparenting in species without opposite-sex coparenting) 25, 1n15; mammals 331, 362, 364, 423, 434, 443, 462, 468; birds 497, 553, 588, 637, 639; sexual behaviors 60-63, 125, 126, 2n29, 2n41, 4n12; primates 269-270, 276, 281-282, 290, 294, 300, 304, 308, 313, 317, 321; marine mammals 361-362, 375; hoofed mammals 414-415; other mammals 450, 462; birds 549; see also Duration of homosexual interactions
Dildos see Cultural behavior-tool use
Divorce, separation, mate-switching (heterosexual) 80, 139, 161, 206, 207, 5n139; mammals 291; waterfowl 482, 485, 490, 492, 494, 496, 498-499, 504, 508, 516, 520, 526; shore birds 535, 538, 542, 546, 550, 555, 558-559, 564; perching birds 576-577, 581-582, 586, 588-589, 593, 596, 604, 609; other birds 630, 634, 653
Divorce, separation, mate-switching (homosexual) 23, 91; birds: waterfowl 482, 492, 507, 526; shore 538, 545, 553, 558, 564; perching 576, 588-590, 607-608; other 628, 653
Dominance see Explanations
Donaldson, Stephen 45
Douglas, Lord Alfred 103
Dynes, Wayne 45
Duration of homosexual interactions 2n43; mammals: primates 270, 281, 285, 290, 294, 304, 312-313; marine 340, 349, 353, 357, 361, 375; hoofed 379, 391, 414, 428; other 447, 456; birds: shore 534, 537, 558; perching 580, 584, 607; other 622, 628, 633, 641, 645
Duration of homosexual pairbonds; long-term 22-23, 2n10-12; mammals: primates 272, 281, 303, 313, 326, 331; marine 344, 354; hoofed 379, 422; other 433-434, 474; birds: waterfowl 479, 483, 488-489, 493, 494, 506-507, 521, 525; shore 541, 545, 549, 553, 558; perching 576, 592, 599, 607-608; other 627, 633, 651, 655; short-term 22-23; mammals: primates 281, 285, 295, 303, 307, 313, 331; marine 354; hoofed 414; other 442, 471; birds: waterfowl 492-493, 497, 506-507, 512; shore 558; perching 588, 607-608, 619; other 628
E
Eaton, G. Gray 251
Edwards, George 83, 84
Egg destruction, abandonment (heterosexual) 139, 205; birds: waterfowl 485-486, 490, 498-499, 504, 516, 527; shore 532, 551, 562, 564; perching 585; other 625, 630, 634, 638, 646, 653
Egg/nestling transfer see Parasitism
Egg-stealing see Kidnapping; Sources of offspring
Einstein, Albert 1
Ejaculation see Orgasm
Embracing, clasping, hugging (homosexual) 16-17, 74; mammals: primates 111, 280-281, 285, 295, 303, 308, 312, 314, 317, 321, 326, 328; marine 343, 361, 364, 371, 375; other 450, 474
Endangered species 79-80, 159, 172-173, 5n17, 5n18; mammals: primates 269, 276, 280, 284, 293, 299, 302, 312, 320, 336; marine 339, 356, 367, 374; hoofed 383, 402, 405, 413, 418, 427; other 432, 437, 453, 473; birds 536
Erection (penile or clitoral) see Sexual arousal
Evolution 64, 66, 69, 76, 168, 195, 1n3; see also Post-Darwinian evolution
Excess copulations (heterosexual) see Group activity; Multiple matings
Exclusive homosexuality; lifetime 47-48; mammals 283, 296, 344-345, 420; birds 481, 494, 554, 629, 648-649; other long-term 47-49, 177, 677n10-12; mammals: primates 277-278, 283, 291, 296; marine 344-345, 363, 368; hoofed 395, 404, 407, 411, 415, 419-420, 429; other 434, 438, 466; birds: waterfowl 481, 489, 493-494, 507; shore 531, 546, 554; perching 568, 571, 574, 576, 589; other 629, 638, 648-649, 653; short-term 49-50, 177; mammals: primates 283, 286, 304-305, 327, 332; marine 363, 372; hoofed 385, 414, 423; other 463, 472; birds: waterfowl 489; shore 550, 558, 564; perching 538, 576, 595, 608; other 629, 638, 642; see also Preference (homosexual)
Explanations of homosexuality; bisexual superiority 173-183, 5n20-21; contributing to heterosexuality/ breeding 185-194, 5n54, 5n64, 5n77; dominance 107-115, 3n74-76, 3n81-82, 3n85, 3n89, 3n96-97; helpers 169-172, 5n7, 5n9, 5n11; mistaken sex identification 148-155, 4n76, 4n83-86; nonsexual 115-121, 3n58, 3n59, 3n69, 3n86, 3n101-103; pathology — captivity 156-163, 2n76; pathology — hormonal, other physiological 145, 147, 163-167, 2n76, 4n73, 4n116; population control 172-173, 5n13, 5n16; practice for heterosexuality 183-185, 5n49, 5n52; pseudoheterosexuality 124-133, 165, 2n41, 4n28; shortage of opposite sex 134-148, 2n16, 4n43, 4n65-70; see also Behavioral/sexual plasticity
Extra-pair (promiscuous) copulations see Nonmonogamous pair-bonds
F
Face-to-face (ventroventral) position see Mounting positions, variant
Faderman, Lillian 82
Fedigan, Linda 113, 157
Fellatio see Oral stimulation
Forced copulations see Noncon-sensual sexual activity
Ford, Joseph 247, 252
Fossey, Dian 85
Foster-parenting see Adoption; Sources of offspring
Fox, Greysolynne J. 208
Frassach, King Niall 194
Frequency, prevalence of homosexual interactions 27-28, 30-36, 101-102, 157, 1n29, 1n44-45, 3n57, 4n98
Freud, Sigmund 125
Friendships, sexual see Partnerships
G
Gadeau de Kerville, Henri 84
Gadpaille, W. J. 46
Gaia theory 248-49
gay, term applied to animals see Terminology for homosexuality
Geist, Valerius 107, 204, 258
Gender roles (homosexual) see Explanations-pseudoheterosexuality; Mounter/mountee preferences; Transvestism-contrasted with homosexuality
General Economy, theory of 252, 253, 255, 256
Genetics of homosexuality 74, 78, 80, 168, 173-174, 181-183, 3n33, 5n20
Genital rubbing (heterosexual) 273, 287, 314, 340, 415-416, 430
Genital rubbing (homosexual) 19, 93, 106, 126; primates 269-272, 270, 276-277, 280, 289-290, 303, 308, 333; marine mammals 339-340, 343, 354, 375
Gibson, William 260
Goerner, Sally 247-248
Goldsmith, Edward 256
Goodall, Jane 163
Gould, Stephen Jay 247
Greetings interactions see Ritualized interactions
Grooming, rubbing, preening (homosexual) 16; primates 272, 277, 280-281, 285, 289-290, 294-295, 302, 304, 308, 321, 328; marine mammals 340, 342, 349, 353, 356-357, 371, 375, 376; hoofed mammals 391-392, 406-407, 419, 427; other mammals 433-434, 450, 462, 470-471, 474; birds 540, 607, 628, 651-652
Group activity (heterosexual) 209; mammals: primates 273, 333; marine 346, 351, 355, 358, 364, 376; other 433, 451, 463; birds: waterfowl 484-485, 494, 499, 502, 516, 522-523, 520; shore 531; perching 572, 586, 604; other 646
Group activity (homosexual) 18; mammals: primates 271, 332; marine 343-345, 349, 351, 353, 356-357, 375; hoofed 392, 394, 402-403, 407, 408, 414; other 433, 450, 462; birds: waterfowl 480, 502, 515, 522-523; shore 561; perching 572-573, 580-581, 584; other 637, 645; see also Pile-up mounts
Grumbine, R. Edward 256
Gynandromorph see Intersexuality
H
Haldane, J. B. S. 9, 248
Harassed copulations (heterosexual) 55, 193, 202-203, 2n29; mammals: primates 278, 294, 297, 300, 304, 314, 333; hoofed 400; other 439, 451, 463; birds: waterfowl 503; shore 529, 550; perching 571, 574, 596; other 630, 638
Harassment, chasing, antagonism (heterosexual) 203; mammals: primates 273-274, 278, 287, 314, 322, 328, 333; marine 341, 346-347, 358, 363-364, 369, 376; hoofed 381, 389, 395-396, 400, 404, 408, 420, 426, 430; other 439, 446, 451, 456-457, 459, 463, 475; birds: waterfowl 485, 494, 499, 503, 508, 512, 520; shore 535, 550; perching 568, 571, 577, 586, 592, 604, 613; other 625, 642, 654; see also Nonconsensual sexual activity; Violence
Harjo, Joy 257-258
Heinroth, Oskar 94
Helms, Jesse 79-80
Helpers see Alloparenting; Explanations-helpers; Nonbreeders-helpers
Hermaphroditism see Intersexuality
Hermaphroditism, sequential see Transsexuality
Heterosexism in zoology see Homophobia
Heterosexual aggression see Harassment; Nonconsensual sexual activity; Violence
Heterosexual mating difficulties see Harassed copulations; Mounting without penetration; Partner refusal
Ho, Mae-Wan 246
Homophobia, heterosexism in zoology 87-106, 2n16, 3n90; distaste, revulsion toward homosexuality 88-90, 107, 3n13; double standards 91-93, 97-98, 115-118, 160, 165, 2n16, 685n20, 687n41, 689n57, 694n109; inadequate/inconsistent coverage 100-101; marginalization 100-103, 104; omission of information 87, 100-101, 103-106, 114, 122-123, 258, 3n9, 3n65, 3n67-68; presumption of heterosexuality 93-96, 161-162, 187, 195, 3n27, 3n33, 3n35; questionable or inhumane treatment of animals 86-87, 164, 166; use of biased/derogatory terms 83, 85, 88-91, 96-97, 148, 156, 158, 163, 165, 166, 3n15, 3n33, 3n41; value judgments 84, 90-93, 107, 123-124, 2n82, 3n11, 3n18, 4n9; see also Explanations; Naturalness; Terminology for homosexuality
Horapollo 84
Hormones see Explanations-pathology
Hugging see Embracing
Human homosexuality/transgender 2, 44-45, 59, 60, 76-79, 97, 98, 122, 123-124, 133, 134, 156, 169, 188, 194, 214, 357, 1n46, 2n19, 3n11, 3n44, 4n9, 4n22, 4n37, 5n29, 5n80, 6n32, 6n58; see also Indigenous cultures; Naturalness
Hutchinson, George Evelyn 168
I
Idani, Gen’ichi 52
Incest (heterosexual) 73-74, 80, 208; mammals: primates 274, 278, 283, 287, 291, 305, 310, 319, 322, 327-328, 334; marine 346, 351, 364; hoofed 381, 385, 412, 420; other 435, 439, 459, 463, 469; birds: waterfowl 482, 489, 507, 521; shore 547, 555, 558-559; perching 577; other 646
Incest (homosexual) 49, 73-74, 162, 303, 325, 433-434; parent-offspring 73, 162, 2n14; mammals 272, 289-291, 295, 321, 334, 384, 411, 474; birds 576, 595, 618, 645; sibling 73; mammals 281, 289-290, 295, 308, 321, 334, 350, 423, 434, 442, 448, 462, 470; birds 481, 506, 519, 595, 608, 645; taboo 73-74, 272, 295, 303
Indigenous cultures; and collaboration with Western scientists 242-244, 6n65, 6n78; and scientific corroboration of beliefs 231-242, 255-256, 257-260; Native American 45, 216-221, 231-234, 237-241, 242-244, 253, 256-260, 6n12, 6n65, 6n67; New Guinean 72, 75, 221-226, 231-233, 234, 236-237, 238, 240, 241, 243, 256; Siberian/Arctic 226-230, 231-233, 256; other cultures 44-45, 71, 72, 75, 241, 255-256, 6n2, 6n20, 6n116
Infanticide (heterosexual) 80, 139, 173, 205; mammals: primates 278, 283, 297, 318, 322, 328, 337; marine 347, 363-364, 369; hoofed 416, 420, 424; other 435, 439, 444, 447, 454; birds: waterfowl 490, 494, 504, 516, 520; shore 532, 542-543, 547, 551, 555, 559, 562, 564; perching 582, 585, 604, 609; other 625, 646
Infidelity see Nonmonogamous pair-bonds
Infrequency of heterosexual mating 31, 32-33, 1n37, 4n94; mammals 296, 300, 327, 362, 392, 415, 426, 451; birds 498, 570, 574, 578, 580, 589, 600, 608, 613, 642, 645
Intergenerational interactions (heterosexual ) 208; primates 274, 278, 283, 287, 291, 296, 305, 310, 322, 327, 334; marine mammals 346-347, 351, 363, 369; hoofed mammals 381, 385, 389, 393, 404, 408, 412, 420, 426, 430; other mammals 447, 454, 459, 463, 466, 469; birds 507, 521, 547, 555, 559; see also Juveniles
Intergenerational interactions (homosexual) 13, 30, 162, 149-50; primates 271, 272-273, 281, 289-291, 294-295, 303, 312, 317, 321, 328, 332, 334, 336; marine mammals 343-344, 350, 361, 367-368, 371-372; hoofed mammals 379, 383-384, 388, 394, 406-407, 411, 428; other mammals 446, 454, 463, 467-468, 469; shore birds 545; perching birds 567-568, 572-573, 576, 596, 599-600, 601, 604-605, 606-607, 612, 613, 615, 616, 617-618; other birds 641
International Ethological Conference 122-123, 4n2
Intersexuality 37, 145, 163, 166-167, 234-236, 235, 6n50; mammals: primates 277, 286, 295, 309, 326; marine 347, 351-352, 357, 358; hoofed 379-350, 386, 388, 399, 412, 415; other 440, 443, 444, 450, 451, 457, 459, 469
Interspecies adoption see Adoption
Interspecies interactions (heterosexual) 139, 208; mammals 274, 278, 310, 328, 346, 363, 369, 373, 463; birds 482, 485, 489, 531, 535, 538, 554, 586, 596, 601, 639, 642
Interspecies interactions (homosexual) 109, 142, 158; mammals 277, 286, 308, 317, 340, 344-345, 365, 372, 475; birds 481, 484, 489, 499, 534, 600, 602-603
J
Jordan, June 258
Juveniles, heterosexual activity; among 208; mammals 283, 291, 310, 351, 373, 385, 420, 444, 451, 463, 466; birds 482, 507, 559, 609, 654; see also Intergenerational interactions
K
Karsch, Ferdinand 84
Kidnapping, egg-stealing (heterosexual) 161, 207; mammals 297, 305, 310, 322, 328, 347, 364, 369, 373, 389; birds 490, 525, 564, 609, 630
Kinsey, Alfred 51-52
Kissing, nose-to-nose contact, billing (homosexual) 16, 18, 212; primates 273, 277, 285-286, 295, 308, 312, 314, 317, 321, 326, 331; marine mammals 371, 375; hoofed mammals 419, 427; other mammals 465, 467-468; birds 607, 652
L
Laboulmène, Alexandre 84
LaFortune, Richard see Anguksuar
Language, sexual activity and see Cultural behavior
LaPena, Frank 256
Left-handedness/-sidedness 217-218, 233-234, 6n57
Lek mating system (heterosexual) 41, 250, 397-398, 528, 566, 569, 572, 578, 611, 636, 640
Lek, other display courts (homosexual) 14, 371, 398, 529-530, 567, 570-571, 572-573, 578, 614-615, 617-618, 636-637, 641; lesbian, term applied to animals see Terminology for homosexuality
Littlebird, Larry 257
Lombardo, Michael 83
Lorde, Audre 258
Lorenz, Konrad 85, 98, 3n44
Lovelock, James 248-249
Low, G. C. 85
M
MacNeice, Louis 262
Male sexual cycles see Sexual cycles, male
Manual (or other appendage) stimulation (heterosexual) 61, 208, 209; primates 273, 278, 283, 287, 291, 318-319, 327; marine mammals 346, 373; hoofed mammals 430
Manual (or other appendage) stimulation (homosexual) of partner 20, 61, 74, 112, 126; primates 272-273, 277, 280, 282, 285, 290, 295, 308, 312-313, 317, 321, 325-326, 328; marine mammals 343, 375; hoofed mammals 428; of self (during partner interaction) 20, 61; primates 280, 285, 300, 303, 308, 313, 321, 325; other animals 343, 371, 409, 474, 480
Maple, T. L. 115
Marquess of Tavistock 85
Masters and Johnson 60
Masturbation 20, 209-210, 1n9; tool use in 70, 210, 273, 278, 287, 319, 341, 346, 2n62; mammals: primates 273, 278, 283, 287, 291, 296, 301, 305, 309-310, 314, 319, 322, 327, 333; marine 341, 346, 373; hoofed 381, 385, 389, 420, 424; other 435, 447, 451, 469, 475; birds 504, 538, 630, 639, 643; see also Manual stimulation
Mated pairs see Partnerships
Mating outside breeding season/estrus/fertilizable periods (heterosexual) 80, 161, 204, 207, 208, 5n114; primates 274, 278-279, 287, 291, 296, 301, 305, 309-310, 322, 327, 333, 337; marine mammals 346, 351, 355, 358, 363, 373, 376; hoofed mammals 381, 385, 408, 416, 424, 426; other mammals 439, 451, 454, 457, 463, 468, 475; waterfowl 485, 494, 499, 503, 507-508, 510, 516, 520, 526; shore birds 534-535, 542, 547, 555, 550, 559; perching birds 581, 585, 596, 604, 608-609, 613; other birds 625, 630, 634, 642, 649, 654; see also Pregnancy/incubation, heterosexual activity during
Mills, James A. 175-176
Mimicry, male or female see Explanations-pseudoheterosexuality; Transvestism
Monogamy see Pair-bonding
Morris, Desmond 83, 85, 125
Mortality, stress in breeders 167, 189, 199, 200; mammals 381, 385, 389, 395, 408, 447, 457, 459; birds 486, 550, 619, 625, 630, 638
Mountee solicitation/facilitation (homosexual) 110, 127, 155; mammals: primates 271-272, 290, 294-295, 304, 307, 317, 321, 326, 331; marine 368; hoofed 406, 414; other 433, 450, 466, 470; birds: waterfowl 510, 519, 522-523; perching 567, 580, 599, 602-608; other 623, 628, 636
Mounter/mountee preferences (homosexual) 130-131; mammals 271, 281, 308, 316-317, 320-321, 331, 343, 384, 414; birds 481, 511-512, 515, 557, 561, 599
Mounting (homosexual) 18, 19, 162, 219; primates: apes 271-272, 276-277, 281-282, 285; langurs, etc. 294-295, 299-300; macaques 303-304, 308, 312, 316-317, 320-321, 323; other 325-326, 328, 331-332, 333-334, 336; marine mammals 344-345, 361-362, 364, 367-368, 371-72; hoofed mammals: deer 379, 383-384, 386, 388; antelopes, etc. 392, 394-395, 402-405, 398-399; wild sheep, etc. 406-407, 408-409, 411, 414-415, 416; other 419, 422-423, 424, 425-426, 427-428, 430; other mammals: carnivores 433-434, 438, 442-443, 446-447, 447-448; marsupials 450, 451, 453-454, 455-456, 458, 459; rodents, etc. 462, 465, 468, 469, 470, 471, 474, 475-476; waterfowl: geese, etc. 480, 484, 488, 492, 496; other aquatic 501-502, 504-505, 509-510; wading 511-512, 514-515, 518-519, 522-523, 525, 527; shore birds: sandpipers, etc. 529-530, 533-534, 537, 540; gulls, etc. 549, 553, 557-558, 561; perching birds: cotingas, etc. 567-568, 570, 573; swallows, etc. 573, 580-581, 554; sparrows, etc. 599-600, 602-603, 604-605; birds of paradise, etc. 612, 613, 618; other birds: flightless 623, 628, 631; birds of prey, etc. 633, 637-638, 639; hummingbirds, etc. 641-642, 644-645, 648, 651-652, 654-655; see also Mountee solicitation/facilitation; Mounter/mountee preferences; Mounting positions, variant; Pile-up mounts; Reciprocal mounting
Mounting positions, variant (homosexual) face-to-face, belly-to-belly 18, 28, 61, 62; primates 269, 270, 272, 276, 280-281, 282, 290, 303; marine mammals 339-340, 343-344; other positions 18, 170, 2n47, 3n24; mammals 271-272, 276, 303, 308, 313, 339-340, 344-345, 419, 422, 456; birds 523, 529, 549
Mounting without penetration, cloacal contact, and/or ejaculation (heterosexual) 118-119, 202, 203, 207, 209, 3n111, 5n147; mammals: primates 273, 278, 283, 287, 300, 305, 309-310, 314, 318, 322, 327, 333, 337; hoofed 381, 389, 400, 412, 419, 420, 423-424, 430; other 439, 444, 446-447, 463, 475; birds: waterfowl 499, 503, 505, 508, 512, 520-521, 523; shore 535, 542, 555, 550, 559; perching 571, 581, 585, 592-593; other 630, 639, 646, 649, 654; see also Genital rubbing; Reverse mounting
Multiple matings (heterosexual) 32, 209; mammals: primites 273, 278, 287, 300, 305, 310, 318, 322, 333; marine 341, 355, 358, 363; hoofed 400, 416, 424; other 435, 439, 444, 463, 475; birds: waterfowl 490, 510, 520; shore 531, 542, 562; perching 574, 581, 586, 592, 596, 604; other 634, 639, 646, 649; see also Promiscuous mating system
N
Nataf, Zachary I. 260
National Forum on BioDiversity 256-257
Native American peoples see Indigenous Cultures
Naturalness 76-80
Necrophilia (heterosexual) 208-209, 364, 369, 494, 586, 630
Neglect of offspring see Abuse
Nest-building, home-sharing (homosexual) 25-26, 85; mammals 442, 462, 468, 469, 474; birds: waterfowl 481, 484, 488-489, 493, 494, 506, 512, 525, 527; shore 537, 540, 545, 547, 549, 553, 557, 561, 563; perching 570, 587-588, 594-595, 599, 607; other 623-624, 627-629, 633, 634-635, 639, 652
Nest desertion see Egg destruction, abandonment
New Guinean peoples see Indigenous cultures
Nonbreeders (heterosexual) groups/populations 49, 172, 196-197; mammals 296, 301, 328, 367-368, 400, 404, 418, 420, 423; birds 486, 489, 504, 540, 550, 579, 582, 592, 609, 650, 654; helpers 80, 139, 164, 170-172, 190; mammals 423, 439; birds 520, 600-601, 644, 645-646, 648-649; lifetime 172, 197, 5n88; mammals 296, 363-364, 368, 385, 400, 420, 443-444; birds 489, 550, 554, 596, 638, 649; pairs 198; mammals 305, 328; birds 486, 489, 498-499, 504, 523, 535, 542, 592, 609, 633-634; other 80, 196-197, 5n14; mammals: primates 296, 301, 305, 328, 333, 337; marine 346, 364, 372, 376; hoofed 385, 393, 400, 407-408, 412, 415, 426, 430; other 435, 439, 443-444, 447, 451, 457, 464; birds: waterfowl 489, 499, 504, 508, 516, 520; shore 520, 531, 535, 542, 554; perching 568, 571, 574, 576, 589, 596, 604, 609, 616; other 625, 630, 633-634, 638, 643, 645, 654; see also Breeding rare; Mortality, stress in breeders; Postreproductive individuals; Reproductive suppression
Nonconsensual sexual activity (heterosexual) 91, 203-204, 3n20; mammals: primates 285, 287, 318, 321-322, 328; marine 358, 363-364, 369; hoofed 408; other 444; birds: waterfowl 484-485, 494, 499, 503, 516; shore 542, 553, 555, 559, 561-562; perching 568, 584-585, 596, 604; other 642; see also Partner refusal, indifference
Nonconsensual sexual activity (homosexual) 53, 90-91, 110, 3n20, 3n84; mammals: primates 285, 290 300, 317, 321, 336; marine 361; hoofed 403, 407; other 438, 456, 462; birds: waterfowl 492, 502, 505, 515; shore 529-530, 534, 553, 558, 561; perching 584, 604-605; other 641-642; see also Partner refusal, indifference
Nonmonogamous pair-bonds (heterosexual) 80, 139, 161, 207, 211, 2n14, 5n135; mammals 291, 319, 466; waterfowl 482, 485, 490, 494, 499, 503-504, 508, 510, 516, 526; shore birds 535, 538, 542, 550, 555, 559, 562; perching birds 577, 581, 585, 589, 593, 596, 601, 604, 609; other birds 624-625, 629-630, 634, 646
Nonmonogamous pair-bonds (homosexual) 21-22; mammals 272, 309, 345, 434; birds 480-481, 525, 527, 540, 545, 550, 553, 558, 561, 563, 629
Nonoptimal heterosexual partners see Incest; Intergenerational interactions; Interspecies interactions; Juveniles; Necrophilia
Nonprocreative heterosexual behaviors see Anal stimulation; Genital rubbing; Manual stimulation; Masturbation; Mating outside breeding season; Mounting without penetration; Oral stimulation; Pregnancy, heterosexual mating during; Reverse mounting
Nuzzling, other affectionate touching (homosexual) 17; mammals: primates 280, 285, 290, 295, 302, 304, 308, 312, 317, 326, 331; marine 340-341, 342, 349, 353-354, 356-357, 361, 371, 375, 376; hoofed 379, 391-392, 406-407, 427; other 433-434, 450, 462, 465, 467-468, 470-471, 474; birds 652, 654
O
Oral stimulation (heterosexual) 61, 208, 209; mammals: primates 273, 278, 283, 287, 291, 310, 333; marine 346, 373; hoofed 385, 389, 394, 398-399; other 435, 444, 447, 453, 467, 471, 475
Oral stimulation (homosexual) 19-20, 61, 126; mammals: primates 271-272, 276-277, 280, 285-286, 290, 312, 317, 326, 328, 334; marine 343, 350, 375; hoofed 394, 399, 406, 419; other 433-434, 446-447, 450, 453, 465, 467, 470-471, 474
Orgasm, ejaculation (homosexual) 116, 117, 118, 119, 121, 210-211; mammals: primates 270, 281, 285, 290, 295, 303-304, 308, 312-314, 317, 321, 325; 325; marine 351, 375; hoofed 392, 399, 406; other 475; birds 505, 631
P
Pair-bonding (homosexual) see Companionships; Differences between homosexual and heterosexual behaviors; Divorce; Duration of homosexual pair-bonds; Nest-building; Nonmonogamous pair-bonds; Partnerships; Trios, quartets
Parasitism, egg/nestling transfer (heterosexual) 24, 207, 211 ; waterfowl 486, 498, 504, 508, 512, 516; shore birds 535, 546, 559, 562; perching birds 581, 585, 587-588, 596, 604, 609; other birds 624; see also Sources of offspring
Parenting (homosexual); by companions (platonic coparents) 23-24, 189-190; mammals 331, 362, 364, 423, 434, 438, 441-442, 468; birds 497, 595, 523-524, 634, 637, 645; by male coparents 24-26, 29, 174, 189-190; mammals 434; birds 481, 488, 525, 557, 561, 587-588, 623-624, 635; by partners (mated coparents) 23-26, 174, 189; mammals 462; waterfowl 484, 488-489, 493, 494, 499, 523, 525-526, 527; shore birds 537-538, 545-546, 547, 549-550, 553, 557, 561, 563-564; perching birds 587-588; 594-595; other birds 628-629, 634-635, 639, 652; by trios/quartets 24-26, 189, 442, 481, 488, 497, 540-541, 545, 607-608, 623; see also Breeding by homosexual/bisexual animals; Differences between homosexual and heterosexual behaviors; Nest-building; Sources of offspring; Supernormal clutches
Parthenogenesis 37, 257, 260
Partner refusal, indifference (het-erosexud) 91, 155, 202, 2n16, 3n20; primates 273-274, 278, 283, 287, 300, 309, 314, 328, 333, 337; marine mammals 340-341, 356, 358, 363-364, 376; hoofed mammals 385, 389, 395, 403-404, 408, 411, 416, 424, 426, 430; other mammals 435, 438-439, 444, 446, 451, 454, 457, 459, 463, 475; waterfowl 503, 508, 512, 515-516, 520; shore birds 531, 535, 542, 550, 555, 559, 562; perching birds 568, 574, 577, 581, 592, 601, 604, 613, 616; other birds 625, 634, 638, 654; see also Nonconsensual sexual activity; Violence
Partner refusal, indifference (homosexual) 53, 90-91, 110, 154-155, 3n20; mammals 356, 375, 407, 411, 425, 434, 446, 453, 456; birds: waterfowl 481, 488, 502, 505, 506, 511, 515; shore 534, 540, 553; perching 600, 603, 618; see also Nonconsensual sexual activity
Partnerships (homosexual) consortships, preferred partners, sexual friendships 21; primates 272, 277, 280-281, 285, 302-304, 307-308, 312-313, 317, 326, 331; marine mammals 350; hoofed mammals 414, 422-423; other mammals 433, 448, 450, 467, 471-472; birds 529, 599; mated pairs 21, 22-23, 85; mammals 344, 434, 462; birds: waterfowl 479-481, 483-484, 488-489, 494, 499, 492, 497, 506, 521, 524-525, 527; shore 537-538, 541, 545, 547, 549-550, 553, 557-558, 560-561, 563-564; perching 575-576, 587-589, 591-592, 594-595, 606-608; other 623, 627-629, 633, 634-635, 639, 648, 650-652, 654-655; see also Parenting; Trios, quartets
Pederasty, pedophilia see Intergenerational interactions
Penetration, cloacal contact (homosexual) 19, 29, 119-121, 1n24, 3n113; between females 19, 29, 30, 96; mammals 270-271, 285, 343, 446; birds 519, 525, 540; mammals: primates 270-271, 277, 285, 290, 308, 312; marine 339-340, 343-344, 350, 357; hoofed 406, 414; other 446; birds: waterfowl 505, 519, 525, 527; shore 529-530, 540, 557; perching 567, 580, 584, 599; other 628, 631, 637, 641, 644, 648
Pile-up mounts (homosexual, bisexual) 51, 3n81; mammals 433, 438; birds 502, 515, 523, 529, 561-562, 584, 637, 645
Pirsig, Robert 245
Play-fighting, erotic combat (homosexual) 17; mammals: primates 285, 289-290, 300, 308, 325, 328; marine 361, 368; hoofed 379, 388, 392, 394, 402-403, 414, 419, 426, 428-429; other 433, 443, 450, 462, 474, 476; birds 651-652
Pleasure, sexual see Sexual arousal
Polyandry, polygynandry (heterosexual) 139, 207, 212-213, 237, 336, 622, 625, 644
Polygamy (heterosexual) 136, 138-139, 207, 250, 3n57, 5n138; mammals: primates 276, 299, 312; marine 339; hoofed 378, 383, 387, 391, 410, 414; other 432-433, 437, 441, 450, 453, 455, 473; birds: waterfowl 496, 518, 520; shore 528; perching 569, 572, 578, 602, 611, 614, 617; other 640, 645; see also Lek mating system; Polyandry; Polygyny; Promiscuous mating system; Trios, quartets
Polygyny (heterosexual) 207, 280, 285, 360-361, 370-371, 446, 599
Post-Darwinian evolution 245-247, 6n87
Postreproductive individuals 197-198; mammals 278-279, 296, 305, 310, 328, 351, 372, 385, 389, 393, 415, 430; birds 576
Preening see Grooming
Preference (homosexual) 52-53, 2n9, 2n24, 4n54; competing for same-sex partners 21, 52, 56; mammals 278, 281, 285, 303, 309, 399, 414, 433, 474; birds 492, 493, 653; higher individual proportions of same-sex activity 52; mammals 273, 282, 305, 318, 322, 346, 351, 385, 400, 463, 468; birds 515-516, 541, 554, 558, 653; ignoring opposite-sex partners 52, 135, 142-144, 186; mammals 273, 286, 304-305, 309, 362-363, 393, 434, 438, 471, 474-475; birds 481, 523, 527, 531, 561-562, 568, 624, 629, 634, 653; repeated same-sex pairing or mate-switching 52, 144; mammals 303, 344, 443; birds 481-482, 494, 507, 538, 545, 554, 558, 589, 629, 651, 653; reuniting after separation from same-sex partner 56, 144; mammals 309, 318, 384, 434; birds 485, 512, 558; see also Exclusive homosexuality
Preferred partners (homosexual) see Partnerships
Pregnancy, birth, incubation, heterosexual activity during 80, 161, 165, 208; mammals: primates 274, 278, 283, 287, 291, 296, 300-301, 305, 309, 318, 327, 333; marine 351, 363; hoofed 412, 416, 424; other 451, 468-469, 475; birds: waterfowl 485, 499, 507, 516; shore 534-535, 542, 559, 562; perching 596, 592, 609; other 634, 653
Pregnancy, homosexual activity during 165, 170, 281, 294, 308, 314, 325, 419, 426, 428, 468
Promiscuous copulations see Non-monogamous pair-bonds
Promiscuous mating system (heterosexual) 207, 250; mammals: primates 269, 276, 312, 320, 333; hoofed 406, 410, 422; other 432-433, 450, 453, 455, 462, 467; birds: waterfowl 496, 518; shore 528; perching 569, 578, 602, 611, 614, 617; other 636, 640, 647; see also Lek mating system; Polygamy
Protocultural behavior see Cultural behavior
Pseudomale, pseudofemale behaviors see Explanations-pseudoheterosexuality; Transvestism-contrasted with homosexuality
Q
Quartets see Parenting; Sources of offspring; Trios, quartets
R
Rape see Nonconsensual sexual activity
Reciprocal mounting (heterosexual) see Reverse mounting Reciprocal mounting (homosexual) 61, 62-63, 126; mammals: primates 271-272, 304, 308, 317, 321, 331; marine 343, 362; hoofed 384, 414, 419; other 433-434, 456, 462; birds: waterfowl 480, 505, 511-512, 519, 523; shore 540, 557; other 623, 628, 631, 644-645, 648
Refusal of heterosexual copulations see Nonconsensual sexual activity; Partner refusal, indifference; Preference (homosexual)-ignoring opposite-sex partners
Reproductive suppression, delay (heterosexual) 196, 198-199; mammals: primates 274, 278, 287, 328, 333, 337; marine 346, 364, 368, 372; hoofed 381, 389, 393, 412, 415, 430; other 435, 439, 444, 447, 466; birds: waterfowl 489, 499, 504, 520; shore 550; perching 568, 576, 601, 604, 613; other 630, 646, 649; see also Nonbreeders
Reverse mounting (heterosexual) 62-63, 126, 161, 165, 209, 5n148; mammals: primates 273, 296, 300, 305, 310, 318, 322, 327; marine 346, 363, 373; hoofed 385, 389, 393, 404, 412, 415, 420, 423; other 439, 454, 459, 463, 468-469, 475; birds: waterfowl 490, 507, 510, 516, 521, 523; shore 535, 542, 547, 550, 559; perching 613; other 630, 646, 649, 654
Rich, Adrienne 258
Ritualized and/or greetings interactions (homosexual) 18, 74-75, 121, 1n44, 2n71; mammals 277, 317, 321, 326, 419, 446-447; birds 523, 645, 648
Robertson, Doyle 219
Rollinat, R. 84
Rump-rubbing see Anal stimulation
S
Saunders, Peter 246
Savage-Rumbaugh, Susan 66
Schevill, W. E. 18
Schlesier, Karl 259
Selous, Edward 84
Sequential hermaphroditism see Transsexuality
Sex-change see Transsexuality
Sexism in biology 87-88, 185, 202, 210-211, 3n11
Sex ratios, skewed see Explanations-shortage of opposite sex
Sex segregation; migratory 199, 200; mammals 353, 355, 363, 369, 371; birds 531-532, 538, 592-593, 632; social/spatial 48-49, 157-158, 160, 200; primates 280-281, 296, 330, 333; marine mammals 346, 356, 364, 367, 371; hoofed mammals 378, 381, 383, 385, 391, 395, 397-398, 400, 404, 407-408, 414, 422, 426, 429; other mammals 435, 473, 504; perching birds 568, 590, 593, 619; other birds 622, 625, 638-639, 643; temporal/seasonal 200; mammals 364, 371, 389, 410, 414, 473; birds 494, 496, 531-532, 590, 594, 632; see also Delayed implantation; Sexual cycles, male; Sperm storage
Sexual arousal-erection, thrusting, etc. (homosexual) 19, 116-121, 3n84; primates: apes 270-271, 272-273, 276-277, 280-281, 285, 290; langurs, etc. 294-295, 299-300; macaques 303-304, 308, 312-314, 317, 320-321; other 325, 331-332, 333, 336; marine mammals 339-340, 343, 350, 351, 353-354, 356-357, 361, 367-368, 372, 375, 376; hoofed mammals 379, 384, 388, 392, 394, 399, 406-407, 414, 427-428; other mammals 433-434, 443, 446-447, 453-454, 456, 465, 467-468, 474, 475-476; birds 623, 651; see also Orgasm; Penetration
Sexual behaviors (homosexual) see Anal stimulation; Genital rubbing; Differences between homosexual and heterosexual behaviors; Duration of homosexual interactions; Manual stimulation; Mounting; Oral stimulation; Orgasm; Penetration; Ritualized and/or greetings interactions; Sexual arousal
Sexual cycles, male 201-202; primates 305, 310, 333; marine mammals 346, 355, 363, 373, 376; hoofed mammals 381, 430; other mammals 439, 463, 475; birds 604, 625, 642, 654
Sexual friendships see Partnerships
Sexually transmitted diseases 199, 457, 5n137
Sexual orientation see Bisexuality; Exclusive homosexuality; Preference (homosexual)
Sexual plasticity see Behavioral/sexual plasticity
Sexual pleasure see Sexual arousal
Siberian/Arctic peoples see Indigenous cultures
Siblicide 80, 206, 447, 516, 609, 634
Sikes, S. K. 196
Single parenting in pair-bonding species (heterosexual) 190-191, 206; mammals 292; waterfowl 490, 492, 494, 498, 504, 516; shore birds 535, 538, 542, 550, 564; perching birds 582, 586, 589-590, 593, 596, 604; other birds 625, 630
Situational homosexuality see Bisexuality, latent or situational; Explanations-shortage of opposite sex
Skewed sex ratios see Explanations-shortage of opposite sex
Smuts, Barbara 74-75
Social, spatial responses (toward or by homosexual/transgendered animals); interference, hostility toward 56-57, 2n30; mammals 294, 303, 380, 384, 433, 454; birds 485, 608, 637; nonchalance, curiosity toward 54-55, 186, 289, 454, 467, 529, 561, 637, 2n27; offensive attacks by 55-56, 2n34-36; mammals 278, 295, 303, 307, 344, 419, 433, 474; birds 481, 488, 525, 561, 599, 652; partner defense by 55; mammals 278, 281, 303, 326, 344, 414, 423, 428, 433-434, 442; birds 481, 484, 489, 492, 525, 570, 651-652; rank/status of 55, 174-175, 326, 384, 419, 481, 488, 599, 652; segregation/separation by 57-58, 303, 481, 493, 546, 560, 2n38; territory defense by 55; mammals 399, 442; birds 481, 488-489, 512, 537, 540, 545, 549, 564, 588, 592, 607, 652; see also Preference-competing for same-sex partners; Transgendered animals — greater reproductive/heterosexual activity by
Sørum, Arve 259
Soulé, Michael E. 256
Sources of offspring (homosexual parenting) adoption (coparenting by nonbreeders) 24, 174, 362, 434, 557, 588, 5n10; coparenting by breeder and nonbreeder 23-24, 331, 362, 462, 588, 595, 607-608, 623-624; egg/nest-stealing 25, 174, 488, 525, 563-564; foster-parenting in captivity 24, 523, 525, 557, 561, 629, 634-635; joint parenting by breeders 223, 189-190, 331, 364, 423, 438, 441-442, 468, 497, 623, 637, 645; mating within bisexual trios/ quartets 24, 481, 488, 540-541, 545, 607-608; nonmonogamous mating 21-22, 23, 484, 493, 527, 545, 553, 549, 563; parasitism (egg “donation” by other birds) 24-25, 557, 564, 587-588
Sperm competition theory 5n158
Sperm storage 200-201, 503-504, 532
Standing Bear, Luther 258
Stephenson, Robert 243
Step-parenting see Adoption
Steward, Daniel-Harry 218
Stress of breeding see Mortality, stress in breeders
Supernormal clutches 23, 25, 26, 33, 92, 147, 161, 188, 1n10, 1n29, 4n71-72; waterfowl 484; shore birds 537, 540-541, 545-546, 547, 549, 553, 563-564; perching birds 592, 595; other birds 623, 653; see also Parenting
Supra-annual breeding cycles see Breeding rare, incomplete, non-yearly
T
Taboos see Cultural behavior; Incest (homosexual)
Tafoya, Terry 219
Tennent, W. J. 89
Terminology for homosexuality/ transgender 3-4, 12-13, 96-100, 3n46, 3n48; use of gay, lesbian 3, 12, 97; me of homosexual 3-4, 12, 97-100, 1n5, 3n41; use of other terms 97, 3n41, 3n45, 4n5, 6n50; see also Homophobia — use of biased/derogatory terms
Thrusting, pelvic see Sexual arousal
Tools, sexual use of see Cultural behavior
Transgender see Intersexuality; Transsexuality; Transvestism
Transgendered animals; breeding or mating by 128-129, 145, 153-154, 167, 234; mammals 326, 362, 380-381, 384, 415, 443, 446-447; birds 589; greater reproductive/heterosexual activity by 129, 152, 154, 167, 177, 238, 362, 384, 4n20
Transsexuality 39-42, 236
Transvestism 37-39, 152-154, 166-167, 1n48, 6n50; contrasted with homosexuality 38-39, 128-130, 154, 177, 407, 4n2, 4n88, 4n113; female-to-male 38, 153, 236; mammals 336, 380, 388, 407, 446; birds 589, 603, 624; male-to-female 38, 154; mammals 362, 384, 386, 395, 407; birds 530, 578, 596, 615-616
Trios, quartets (heterosexual; in pair-bonding species) 22, 32, 138-139, 161, 180, 206, 207; mammals 454, 466; waterfowl 482, 485, 489, 494, 498, 504, 508, 516, 526; shore birds 535, 538, 540-541, 546, 550, 554, 559; perching birds 581, 589, 593, 596, 604, 609; other birds 630, 634, 653
Trios, quartets (homosexual, bisexual) 22; mammals 344, 354, 379, 414, 428, 433-434, 442, 468; waterfowl 481, 483-484, 488, 493, 497, 525; shore birds 540-541, 545, 557-558; perching birds 592, 599, 607-608; other birds 653-654; see also Parenting; Sources of offspring
Trouessart, E. 84
U
Unwanted sexual advances see Harassment; Nonconsensual sexual activity; Partner refusal, indifference
V
Vaginal/copulatory plugs, other birth control 204-205, 278, 333, 424, 463-464, 475
Vasey, Paul L. 46, 54, 64, 88, 103, 107, 114, 115, 122
Violence, injury (heterosexual) 203-204; mammals: primates 274, 278, 287, 310, 314, 318, 328; marine 341, 343-344, 346-347, 363-364, 369; hoofed 381, 385, 389, 396, 404, 408, 412, 419-420, 426; other 435, 451, 454, 456, 459, 463, 475; birds: waterfowl 485, 494, 499, 503, 507-550; shore 535, 550; perching 586, 596, 601, 613; other 625, 642; see also Harassment; Nonconsensual sexual activity
Virgin birth see Parthenogenesis
Vocalizations (during homosexual activity) 14-15, 127; primates 270, 272, 280-281, 294-295, 303-304, 307, 313-314, 317, 331, 334; marine mammals 344-345, 350, 357, 361, 371, 375; hoofed mammals 387-388, 399, 403, 406, 411, 414, 419; other mammals 433-434, 438, 447, 453, 456, 462, 468, 474, 475; waterfowl 480, 484, 488, 492-493, 497, 502, 506, 511, 515, 519, 522-523, 524-525; shore birds 533-534, 540, 549, 557, 561; perching birds 567, 570, 572-573, 575, 578, 580, 587-588, 591-592, 600, 607, 610, 612-613, 617-618; other birds 623, 628-629, 633, 637, 640-641, 645, 648, 651-652
von Hildebrand, Martin 255
W
Walker, Alice 258
Ward, Jon 76
Watanabe, John 74-75
Watson, Lyall 199
Weinrich, James 45, 59, 60, 77, 78
Whitaker, J. 84
Wild vs. captive/semiwild animals seee Explanations-pathology
Wilde, Oscar 103
Wilson, Edward O. 169, 246, 252, 256
Wolfe, Linda 87, 88
Worster, Donald 245, 248
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